We present a database comprising records of wildlife species >2 kg identified in depictions or man-made objects from Egypt and Nubia from the Last Glacial Maximum to the end of the Ptolemaic Period in Egypt (c.22,000BC–30BC) as reported in the literature. The categories of representations include: tomb reliefs and paintings, temple reliefs, rock art (engravings and paintings), ostraca, stelae, palettes, depictions on ceramics or various other objects, statues, figurines, amulets, various other objects or object parts shaped as wildlife species. The database is deposited in the Open Quaternary Dataverse (Harvard Dataverse) and provides a resource for researchers across disciplines investigating topics related to regional zoogeography and interactions between climate, human populations and biodiversity during the Holocene. The database was compiled as part of the Leverhulme-funded Biodiversity in Egyptian Archaeology during Societal Transitions (BEAST) project and has been used in the research reported in Lazagabaster et al. 2024, Bro-Jorgensen et al. 2025, and Spedding et al. 2025.
This paper presents the first continuous, spatially-explicit reconstructions of the palaeodistributions of 65 plant species found regularly in association with early agricultural archaeological sites in West Asia, including the progenitors of the first crops. We used machine learning to train an ecological niche model of each species based on its present-day distribution in relation to climate and environmental variables. Predictions of the potential niches of these species at key stages of the Pleistocene–Holocene transition could then be derived from these models using downsampled data from palaeoclimate simulations. Our models performed well against independent contemporary test data, but their ability to predict the occurrence of specific species at archaeological sites was much more variable, probably reflecting a tendency of the method to underestimate the species’ fundamental niche. Nevertheless, the majority of species are predicted to have had more restricted geographic distributions under past climate conditions compared to today. Crop progenitors and several wild food species are modelled to have been concentrated in the Levant and, to a lesser extent, Cyprus and Western Anatolia, suggesting these regions may have served as glacial refugia. The average size of species’ niche shrunk by an average of c. 25% from the terminal Pleistocene to the Early Holocene, indicating that economically significant plants were adapted to cryo-arid conditions and did not, as often assumed, initially respond positively to the ‘ameliorated’ climate of the Holocene.
The Early and Middle Holocene (10,000–3,000 BCE) in Southern Arabia witnessed significant climate change and variation in material culture across space and time. This study investigates the potential impact of 1) shifts in population density and 2) climatic fluctuations on the primary drivers of social development and technological innovation in this key timeframe. Our primary goal is to assess whether and to what extent climate change impacted human societies and their technological knowledge, particularly lithic technology. This research is based on a comprehensive collection of radiocarbon dates from surveyed and excavated sites (n = 346), the distribution of projectile points (n = 662) and their technological traits, and published palaeoclimatic records from cave speleothems (n = 2). All proxies encompass two regional case studies, i.e. Sultanate of Oman and United Arab Emirates. Long-term trends in lithic technological traits are explored using aoristic analysis to facilitate measuring their relationship with demographic (e.g., summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates) and palaeoclimatic proxies. Our results suggest that wetter climates during the Early Holocene facilitated population growth, while increased aridity during the Middle Holocene led to population decline and potential patterns of isolation and subsequent cultural heterogeneity. Nevertheless, technological innovations and social adaptations may have played a critical role in mitigating the impacts of environmental changes. This study enhances our understanding of the complex interactions between human technological diversity, population density, and environmental fluctuations in a key period for the formation of local sociocultural trends in the eastern half of Southern Arabia.
This contribution investigates the formation of karst depressions containing metres of fine sediment and prehistoric artefacts at an elevation of around 1000 m a.s.l. in the central part of the Al-Hajar Mountains in south-eastern Arabia. Through field reconnaissance, satellite imagery analysis and laboratory methods, we highlight the origin of their thick sediment deposits and the factors enabling their retention in an otherwise erosional landscape. Comprehensive analyses of heavy minerals and microfossils reveal that the sediment deposits accumulated in the depressions of the Sint Karst Plateau (local term: huyul, sg. hayl) contain alluvially redeposited aeolian materials rather than in situ weathering products. The basal terra rossa incorporates dust from surrounding rock formations, while the overlying silt originates from more distant sources, presumably coastal shelves exposed during marine regression (for instance, from the Arabian Gulf). The sediment aggradation and flooding observable at huyul is attributed to clogging by suspended silt particles during the infiltration of floodwater – a process similar to siltation in modern recharge dams, although occurring at a much different temporal scale and hydraulic pressure. Satellite imagery confirms that similar clusters of karst depressions exist elsewhere in the Al-Hajar Mountains at elevations between 700–1500 m a.s.l. and that they are specifically associated with near-horizontal karst plateaus with a distinctive criss-cross pattern of fractures. These mountain plateau huyul represent valuable palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental archives and have preserved aeolian dust no longer present in steep terrain of equal elevation.
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is a key reference point for understanding past climate, but its complexity can lead to ambiguities in scope and interpretation. In this study, we applied a suite of geochemical techniques -XRF, grain size, and pollen analysis- to a well-dated sedimentary sequence from the lower central plain of Thailand. Our results show a gradual increase in fluvial runoff and precipitation from 26.5 to 24.6 cal ka BP, followed by reduced discharge around 24.6–24.1 cal ka BP, correlating with Heinrich event 2. A subsequent decline in runoff until 23 cal ka BP was followed by a distinct increased precipitation between 23–22.8 cal ka BP, with an abrupt shift to drier conditions post 22.8 cal ka BP. Comparing our records with other paleo records from the Sundaland imply that the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) did not shift significantly north during the LGM. Instead, we suggest an ENSO-like phenomenon modulated tropical rainfall during the LGM as a result of the exposed Sunda Shelf, which enhanced precipitation and created a climate similar to the present tropical wet-dry or savanna climate, with pronounced seasonality. Our results highlight the complexities associated with tropical climate variability, challenging the conventional uniformity of cool and dry conditions during the LGM.
Industrial periodicity is a hallmark of modern and ancient extractive economies. In Southeast Arabia, current evidence demonstrates that intensive periods of copper production are bracketed by century- to millennia-scale periods of little to no production. Explanations for this periodicity range from environmental degradation (e.g., deforestation related to unsustainable fuelwood provisioning) to shifts in local and distant trade networks to internal sociocultural factors. In this paper, we give an overview of the current understanding of this problem and introduce new data from the Archaeological Water Histories of Oman (ArWHO) project’s research along Wadi Raki, one of the largest and best preserved ancient industrial landscapes in Arabia. Methods used to generate this data include remote sensing, pedestrian surveys, targeted excavations, and laboratory analyses of production debris and wood charcoal to examine the periodicity of copper production. Our work provides a new baseline understanding of environmental and sociopolitical factors that drove changes in the tempo of industrial copper production in Southeast Arabia.
The Al-Hajar Mountains, spanning the Sultanate of Oman and the United Arab Emirates along the Sea of Oman, have hosted human settlement since prehistory. Over the past three decades, numerous archaeological sites have been investigated in this region. Findings from these sites reveal significant human impact on the landscape from the Early Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age, evidenced by complex settlements and extensive burial grounds. This study synthesizes recent zooarchaeological data and presents the first exploratory osteometric analysis of sheep and goats from southeastern Arabia, the most abundant and extensively exploited terrestrial mammals in the region’s prehistoric record. By examining metrical data from key archaeological sites, this paper assesses size variation patterns in these species through statistical evaluation. The study primarily focuses on documenting differences in bone size and shape, but also provides a foundation for future studies aimed at understanding broader aspects of animal management, environmental adaptation, and socio-economic dynamics among both inland communities along the Al-Hajar Mountains and fisherfolk on the Arabian Sea coast.
In arid environments, continental records of climate change are rare. In southeast Arabia, where most of the landscape is dominated by the ophiolithic al-Hajar mountains, palaeoclimatic data are mainly derived from sedimentary records on the piedmonts. In the mountains themselves, where human occupation could have prevailed during periods of climatic stress, sedimentary archives are weakly preserved. Recent studies have revealed the existence of thick but under-explored sedimentary archives in oases. In order to evaluate their potential as palaeoenvironmental records, we develop a geomorphic, sedimentological and mineralogical approach in the oasis of Masafi (UAE). Results allow us to identify sediment sources and deposition modes over the last 18 ka. Late Pleistocene deposits are comprised of quartz-rich aeolian sands from the Rub’al-Khali while Early to Mid-Holocene deposits (10–7.5 ka) are calcite-rich loess probably originating from the Persian Gulf, deposited on the slope upstream of the oasis and later remobilized during humid periods. Late Holocene records (after 2.7 ka) are more complex to interpret with the onset of anthropogenic activities. While sediment connectivity between the slope and the oasis still occurred up until the last 2 ka through the channelling of runoff water and gullying, we witness shifting soil management strategies and reduced sediment supply from the slopes after that date. As a conclusion, our results reveal complex morphoclimatic and anthropogenic processes in the oasis but its high potential as an archive of ancient climate change and alluvio-aeolian processes if studied with caution. Highlights Continental records of climate change are rare in arid mountainous environments Stratigraphic sequences in oases provide an underexploited sedimentary archive We develop a geomorphic, sedimentological and mineralogical study of oasian archives Oasian sequences record regional climatic signals, local hydrogeological conditions and anthropogenic activities Aeolian processes and hydric remobilization of windborne sediment are dominant sedimentation processes in the oasis Sediment disconnectivity occurred during the last millennia as a result of reduced water resources
The excavations undertaken on the site of Dadan have recovered a very important bone assemblage (more than 167,696 remains), allowing us to reconstruct and better understand the subsistence strategies of the inhabitants in a central part of the al-‘Ula (AlUla) oasis for at least three thousand years. The city of Dadan was the capital of important Iron Age regional powers, the Dadan and later the Lihyan Kingdoms, which controlled the caravan routes across the oasis between the Levant and Mesopotamia and the south of the Arabian Peninsula, and later the Red Sea. Subsequently, the site of Dadan continued to be occupied in the Late Antique and Islamic periods. From these different chronological periods and excavation areas, the bone remains, representing meal leftovers, shows a clear dominance of caprine (sheep/goat) followed by the Arabian camel. Wild species, such as gazelle, oryx and hare, signs of hunting activities, are very rare, as also is birdlife. These domestic species are certainly the result of local breeding and underline the great autonomy of the inhabitants of the oasis. Only fish or seashell come from a more distant horizon, the Red Sea via the trade routes. The absence of pigs and the lack of chicken or cattle raise many questions, as does the small presence of camel in the area occupied/developed in the Late Antique.
The al-Ula Cultural Oasis Project (UCOP) led by Archaïos, funded and steered by the French Agency for AlUla Development (AFALULA) on behalf of the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU), is investigating since 2021 a hitherto unknown network of qanats surrounding the well-known city of Qurḥ, today known as al-Mābiyāt, in the al-ʿUlā valley (northwestern Saudi Arabia). Well documented in Islamic sources, Qurḥ was situated on the pilgrimages routes and described as a main power center in the region until the end of the 12th century AD. As a first step, remote sensing and photo-interpretation were combined with a systematic pedestrian survey to identify the qanats. As a second step, chronological evidence was obtained through the study of the ceramic and glass assemblages collected during the survey. Our preliminary results suggest that these qanats supplied water to the hinterland of Qurḥ and were probably abandoned simultaneously with the city. They therefore form the largest network of qanats, and overall the most extensive waterscape, known from the Early and Middle Islamic periods (7th to 13th century AD) in the Arabian Peninsula. The creation of the morphological map and the study of local hydrology, combined with the analysis of the spatial organization of these qanats, also suggest that they collected several underground water sources. This ongoing study thus highlights the role played by water management in the urban development in the northern Hejaz during the Early and Middle Islamic periods.
The lowland oases and highland plateaus of Southeast Arabia have been occupied since ancient times due to the availability of groundwater resulting from abundant precipitation in the mountains. By contrast, the land use of intermediate narrow canyons as pathways to transport between oases and mountains has not been fully understood, and thus the holistic understanding of how people have used and adapted to arid land still remains to be pursued. To examine land use and its transformation, we have investigated Tanuf Canyon in the Al-Hajar Mountains in North-Central Oman since 2017. We documented 21 archaeological sites that indicate variegated land use related to mobility. The land is used most often for mortuary purposes. However, non-mortuary activities such as occupation, rock art panels, nomadic pastoral activities, and fortifications were also detected. Moreover, we confirmed the changes and continuities in the terrain that serve specific purposes. The location of the cemeteries has shifted periodically, indicating the transformation of cultural needs derived from mortuary customs. The emergence of fortification in the Islamic period reflects a new method of land control, accompanied by increased needs for defensive purposes. However, the locations of cave occupation and rock art generally remained unchanged because of the continuing needs to provide natural shelters or panels for pecking. The canyon has always constrained land availability since the Early Holocene, and the mode of land selection and occupation depend on a combination of cultural and practical factors.
During the 3rd millennium BC, a series of oases located along the western foothills of the al-Hajar Mountains saw the establishment of intensive human occupation, associated with the construction of large buildings (the so-called “towers”) and residential structures. These settlements were supported by the onset of agriculture and their development was often associated with and made possible by the introduction of substantial water management systems, including simple wells and complex, large ditches. The oasis of Salūt, near Bisya in the central Sultanate of Oman, is one such Early Bronze Age (EBA) centre. There, extensive investigation of ancient hydraulic structures provided an opportunity to study contexts preserving significant information on ancient climate change and water availability, from the late 3rd to the second half of the 1st millennium BC. A geoarchaeological investigation targeted the huge ditch surrounding the EBA stone tower of Salūt-ST1. Its complete layout was revealed and large portions were fully excavated, allowing the documentation of its infillings and the geological substratum. At the same time, wells excavated at the bottom of the ditch witness the attempt to cope with the lowering water table at the turn of the 3rd millennium BC. Exploration of Iron Age (IA) wells, paired with the geoarchaeological study of sediments from the plain, further extended the chronological scope of the research, while a survey of the area identified ancient and more recent underground and open-air channels, including the exceptional radiometric dating for the introduction of the aflaj (the local term – plural – for the underground water tunnels) network serving the oasis in the late Holocene. This contribution presents the first synthesis including fresh data on how water was harvested and managed in the area of Salūt over almost two millennia, with a diachronic approach that finds little parallels in the region.
The Early Bronze Age in southeastern Arabia is characterized by a significant shift in the archaeological record that coincides with the regional deterioration of climatic conditions associated with the end of the Holocene Humid Period. This study presents evidence for human modification of the local landscape around Building VII, a large circular structure at Al-Khashbah, Oman dating to the late third millennium BC. Through multiproxy analyses combining archaeological, geophysical, geomorphological, pedological and malacological, geochemical, palynological, and archaeobotanical datasets, we found evidence for the excavation of sediments at the foot of Building VII during the Umm an-Nar period. This excavation was subsequently filled by sediment presenting evidence for soil development, increased organic carbon, salt enrichment, microcharcoal, and snails. We suggest that both the excavation and subsequent aggradation may be related to gardening activities, though archaeobotanical and palynological analyses did not yield sufficient preserved material for local vegetation reconstruction. Nevertheless, our results contribute valuable insights into local human-environmental interactions and show that investigations beyond the visible archaeology of the monumental buildings of Early Bronze Age Oman can record a wide range of human activities and land modification near these important sites. These results have the potential to provide information on the resilience and adaptation to climate aridification by Umm an-Nar period peoples in central Oman and landscape modification during this period of economic transformation, increasing sedentarization, and growing social differentiation.
The Bat landscape of northwestern Oman is one of intermittent archaeological remains and varied ecological conditions. The site has been a center for human activity since the Neolithic, most famously attested by the Early Bronze Age tombs, towers, and settlement of the UNESCO World Heritage zone. This paper presents recent research conducted by the Bat Archaeological Project in reconstructing the site’s third millennium BC cultural landscape and the human-environment interactions that led to its creation and long-term occupation. Three of Bat’s Early Bronze Age environs: the Settlement Slope, al-Khutm, and Rakhat al-Madrh are discussed in view of their ecological, geomorphological, and archaeological contexts. New archaeobotanical and 14C results are presented. These discoveries suggest Bat’s ancient inhabitants sought out and utilized diverse environments in order to establish cultural and ecological resilience within a localized area. Ultimately, we propose an expansion to the traditional oasis model of settlement and agricultural development in southeast Arabia, arguing for a systems-based approach that incorporates roles played by environs beyond the oasis.
This geoarchaeological survey was dedicated to (i) the Umm an-Nar (2700–2000 BCE) settlement site of Dahwa and surrounding areas in the foothills of the Hajar Mountains as well as (ii) the coastal area near Saham on the Batinah coastal plain in northern Oman, the latter without focus on a specific cultural epoch. Stratigraphic sections from the proximal coastal plain provide insights into highly dynamic episodic sedimentation patterns with thick units of variable grain sizes and sorting. In one of the stratigraphic profiles in the town of Saham, a small anthropogenic pit or channel was found, interpreted as a pit hearth used by the Samad culture (300 BCE–100/200 CE) based on granulometry, thin-section analysis, clustered macro-charcoals, amorphous organic remains, as well as luminescence and 14C dating. Our coincidental discovery of this site indicates that there might be abundant traces of the Samad culture buried in the thick alluvium, from a period of hydrologically favourable conditions c. 50–300 CE. The Umm an-Nar dating of the Dahwa archaeological site in the foothills of the Hajar Mountains was confirmed for the first time by luminescence dating, although the low dose rate and high scatter of equivalent doses pose substantial challenges to the regional application of this method.
At present more than 1600 mustatil have been recorded across Arabia. These monumental ritual structures have been interpreted as markers of territoriality and a key component in constructing and consolidating kinship ties and communal social identities in the Late Neolithic. Perhaps most strikingly, these structures are marked by a homogeneity of architectural form, over a vast geographic area, some 350,000 km2. In AlUla County, ten mustatil have been excavated, including seven by the AAKSA and PAKEP projects. These excavations have revealed chronologically contemporaneous ritual deposits of faunal remains, specifically the horns and upper cranial elements of domesticated sheep, goat, and cattle, as well as wild taxa, such as gazelle and ibex. Despite the overall similarity of architectural form across these examples, the faunal composition of these deposits varies, with some structures marked by higher proportions of wild taxa, whilst others are predominantly composed of cattle and/or caprines. In this paper, we present the data from each of the excavated mustatils and explore the possibility that these assemblages represent the pastoral economies of the group(s) who constructed the mustatil, shedding new light on the various lifeways and herding practices of the 6th and 5th millennia BC. In addition, comparison with contemporary domestic occupation suggests that the appearance of the mustatil marks the emergence of a sacral architectural form in northwest Arabia during the Neolithic, with a clear architectural distinction maintained between the sacred and profane.
This paper attempts to set out a preliminary narrative of changing water exploitation and settlement in Southeast Arabia from the Umm an-Nar period to the Iron Age, with a particular focus on the 4.2ka event. It argues for long-term cultural and adaptive trends that are only now becoming apparent and are relevant to understanding local adaptation strategies to climatic events such as the 4.2ka event. In setting out this narrative, we also aim to show the value of Southeast Arabian data to regional discussions relating to human adaptation to climate change. We argue that lower ground water availability related to aquifer structures would have been a problem for Bronze Age (Umm an-Nar) communities, in particular those living in Central Oman around the Hajar Mountains and would have affected settlement viability in certain climatic conditions, leading to decline in the number and size of settlements after c. 2000BC. We suggest that late Umm an-Nar (2200–2000BC) settlement and agricultural activity over-extended in this area, a development paralleled in Harappan and Mesopotamian communities. These changes would have affected already ancient traditions, for example in relation to the communal ritual monuments. By contrast, for the Northern Emirates karstic aquifers were a crucial factor supporting settlement continuity after the 4.2ka event, in particular in the western coastal areas of Ras al-Khaimah and the area around Dibba on the east coast. It is argued that the distribution of these aquifers is key to understanding the cultural and economic changes associated with the ensuing Wadi Suq period (2000–1600BC). Other processes strengthened the pattern, such as changing interregional exchange patterns and associated overland and maritime routes. By the Iron Age (starting c 1300 BC), it appears that rainfall patterns changed again and settlement density in Central Oman began once again to exceed that of the Northern Emirates. We suggest that this is at least partly linked to the resilience of local communities in dealing with another climate event (3.2ka event) that potentially necessitated the management of climatic patterns that may have included periods of higher and lower rainfall including irregular flooding. Whilst some of the ideas set out here are still quite speculative, they are set out in the belief that further understanding of these changing patterns is crucial for our understanding of long-term adaptation to climate change in this region.
Intra-crystalline protein degradation (IcPD) analysis was undertaken on 80 fossil tooth enamel samples from four taxonomic groups (rhinocerotid, suid, equid, bovid) excavated from two archaeological cave sites in Zambia (Twin Rivers and Mumbwa Caves). Seventy-two (90%) of these fossils showed evidence of closed-system behaviour. The fossils’ relative extent of protein degradation between the sites was consistent with their known ages, with samples from Twin Rivers (Mid-Pleistocene) showing higher levels of degradation than Mumbwa Caves (late Mid-Pleistocene to late Holocene). At Twin Rivers, a potential trend between IcPD and excavation depth was observed, concordant with the working hypothesis of periodic deposition of sediments as slurry flows into a phreatic passage. However, greater depositional and taphonomic complexity was indicated by relatively wide ranges of IcPD values within individual excavation levels. These results are interpreted partly as the consequence of the excavation methods used, alongside reworking within the deposits, which had not previously been recognised. Whilst lack of stratigraphic control limited the investigation of taxonomic effect, one notable difference in the protein breakdown pattern of peptide chain hydrolysis was observed between rhinocerotid in comparison to the other studied taxa. We therefore recommend taxon-specific enamel amino acid geochronologies (AAGs) are developed in future. Whilst lack of comparator datasets meant it was not possible to create a calibrated, enamel AAG for the South-Central African region from these sites, Twin Rivers provides a case study illustrating the complexity of cave formation processes and the importance of direct dating for interpreting archaeological and palaeontological sequences.
At the end of the Pleistocene as temperatures warmed, new habitats opened up to human occupation as the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet receded. Along the west coast of modern-day Norway, human populations of coastal foragers slowly transitioned from short-term settlement patterns in the Early Mesolithic (ca. 11,500–10,000 cal BP), to more lasting ones during the Late Mesolithic (8500-6000 BP) and Early Neolithic (ca. 6000–5200 BP) as climatic conditions improved and stabilized. Here, using spatially and temporally resolved archaeological observations, paleoclimate data, and a spatiotemporal species distribution model, we test whether a) improvements in climate resulted in expansion of the available human niche space allowing for human population growth, and b) whether increasing population densities and ensuing deprecation of habitat suitability pushed people into occupying successively lower ranked habitats as predicted by the Ideal Free Distribution model. We find that a) climate gradually improved and stabilized during the Holocene, with the effect of improving general habitat suitability, which in turn led to an increase in human population size, b) that immediate proximity to sheltered coastal areas was central to settlement decisions but that c) increasing populations did not drive dispersal patterns into lower ranked habitats. The latter is likely attributable to the general improvements in habitat suitability due to the warming climate and the relative abundance of coastal habitats found in Norway.
The open research movement has gained momentum in the last decade and no academic can ignore the necessity to make research more open, as it improves reliability, sustainability and reusability of data. In this paper, we present the results of a community-based survey concerning the extent to which open practices are known and applied within the phytolith research community. The survey covered aspects of research including the use of open source/access software and the open publication of data and papers. The answers of 81 participants show that ≥50% use open source/access software in their research, 40.7% know or use open repositories (not necessarily DOI-based), and 37% and 60.5% are predisposed to or have published gold open access and green open access/preprints, respectively. Among respondents with publications (n = 71), 49.3% stated that all their publications included full method descriptions and 53.5% expressed that ≥60% of their publications contained raw data. Overall, the results of the survey indicate that, albeit some misunderstandings about open research are still present, phytolith researchers are positive towards open research and intend to adopt its principles and practices.
