Given the limited scientific research on the Song–Jin architectural paintings, this study investigates the architectural paintings at Yuanrong Temple, one of the few well–preserved timber structures from the Song–Jin period (AD 960–1234), with the aim of characterizing the materials and techniques and clarifying the sequence of repainting and repair preserved in the surviving remains. Twelve micro–samples were collected from architrave and beam paintings for multi–analytical characterization prior to conservation. Microstructures, elemental composition, and molecular markers of pigments, ground layers, and binding media were examined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy–dispersive spectroscopy, Raman and Fourier–transform infrared spectroscopy, X–ray diffraction and pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Cross sectional microscopy revealed distinct pigment and ground layers in the architrave paintings, whereas the beam paintings lacked a preparatory ground, and overlying paint layers on the architraves confirmed multiple repainting events across different historical periods. Gypsum, quartz and plant fibers were identified in the ground layer of architrave paintings. Pigments identified by SEM–EDS and Raman spectroscopy include iron (III) oxide, hydrated iron oxide, gypsum, amorphous carbon black, and malachite. Py–GC/MS detected amino N–ethylpropanamide, palmitic acid, and related pyrolysates, indicating the use of proteinaceous glue with walnut oil as binding media. These findings reveal clear differences in preparation and material use between the architrave and beam paintings. Comparison with published studies from other periods indicates that the surviving architectural paintings may reflect different painting phases and renewal rather than a single campaign. The beam paintings appear to preserve an earlier technical tradition rooted in Tang period practices and may plausibly date to the early Song dynasty, whereas the architrave paintings show closer affinities with Ming period techniques and may be linked to a later phase of repair or repainting.
This study presents the first large-scale integrated archaeometric investigation of the fabrics of Islamic-period glazed wares produced and consumed in Sicily between the late 9th and 12th centuries. Through the integration of macroscopic analysis, thin-section petrography, and geochemistry, this study refines the characterisation of Sicilian glazed ware fabrics and strengthens their distinction from ceramics produced in Ifriqiya. A total of 188 samples have been analysed from five Sicilian sites: Palermo, Castello della Pietra, Piazza Armerina, Agrigento and Syracuse. The study compares these materials with previously established petrographic fabrics, with the main aim of testing and refining those attributed to specific production centres, and further characterising their compositional variability. Palermo is the most clearly defined centre of production, characterised by the consistent use of the well-known ‘Ficarazzi’ clay source and can be distinguished from other Sicilian manufacturing centres. Workshops at Agrigento, Syracuse, Piazza Armerina, and Mazara del Vallo, where production of glazed ware commenced from the late 10th century, are characterised and interpreted in terms of their likely clay sources. This study also demonstrates that Sicilian products can generally be successfully distinguished from contemporaneous ceramics likely originating from North Africa although some samples attributed to Mazara and Piazza Armerina show compositional affinities that complicate their distinction. While each Sicilian production centre utilised specific local raw materials and their own recipes, certain technological features, including high-temperature firing and salt-white surface treatments on iron-rich fabrics, indicate shared technical knowledge in late 9th – 11th centuries glaze ware production between Sicily and Ifriqiya.
This study introduces an innovative approach for evaluating the chaîne opératoire of greyware and redware ceramics produced locally in Utrecht between the 12th and 15th centuries CE. This new approach aims to integrate compositional studies with quantitative forming technique analysis to more fully understand the production technology. For this, 59 samples were selected from four workshops which were active in three different production phases. These samples include copious wasters of grey jars and reddish lead-glazed tableware, including tripod forms, jugs, bowls and pans, representative of the range of ceramic wares in circulation in the region at the time. All samples, along with one clay sample, were subjected to compositional analysis using OM, WD-XRF, XRD and SEM-EDX. Of these 59 samples, 17 wasters from the first and second production phases were also measured by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), along with a further 21 other samples, to re-examine the gradual typo-technological change from grey jars to reddish tripod forms, as proposed in the literature. The results suggest that the production technology of local greyware and redware ceramics from Utrecht was characterised by both continuity and change. Potters seemed to favour Ca-poor, Fe-rich clay, and added quartz grains, possibly originating from fluvial deposits. Generally, both redware and greyware ceramics were fired at a low temperature, below 800 °C. Regarding the shaping of jars, analysis shows that percussion-wheeling remained the main forming technique during the first and second production phases, but a shift toward increased wheel throwing also occurred. These findings confirm the previously observed typo-technological change in these shapes. The results of this study also indicate a greater presence of lead-glazed redware from the second production phase onward, but especially in the third phase. These ceramic materials were coated with a transparent glaze with a high to very high lead content.
The interaction between Neanderthals and their environment has long been a subject of interest. In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the hunting and processing by Middle Paleolithic human groups. The exploitation of resources provided by small animals, such as leporids and birds, is considered an important aspect for understanding the complex relationships between these hominins and the surrounding environment. For this reason, numerous studies have focused on identifying anthropogenic patterns related to small game processing. However, human groups are not the only contributors to bone accumulations, as mammalian carnivores and birds of prey are also common predators of small animals. In this work, the avian and leporid assemblage from sub-unit IIIb of Teixoneres Cave (northeastern Iberian Peninsula) was analysed. The results indicate a mixed contribution of non-human agents, probably red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and eagle owl (Bubo bubo), together with human activity. Carnivore damage was identified through mechanical modifications and digestive modifications and is quantitatively more significant than the anthropogenic evidence, which is mainly represented by cut marks and burnt bones. Although most burnt bones appear to result from waste-cleaning activities or accidental exposure to fire, cooking activities cannot be ruled out. The exploitation of small prey by Neanderthals and their use of fire are undoubtedly important topics that deserve further investigation. Future research will help to clarify these issues and expand our understanding of the implications of small game exploitation for dietary diversification and the hunting strategies employed by Neanderthal groups.
Mobile royal camps concentrated political activity and consumption while remaining spatially separated from much of the production that sustained them, making their provisioning systems difficult to reconstruct archaeologically. The Houmingzi locality of the Liao–Jin spring nabo site complex in western Jilin, Northeast China, provides a rare context for examining how animal resources entered and were used within such a mobile political center. This study integrates zooarchaeological analysis, bone collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope data, and AMS radiocarbon dating. The assemblage is dominated by domestic mammals, particularly cattle, sheep, and horses, while mortality profiles and carcass-processing traces indicate taxon-specific patterns of use and consumption. The analyzed wild fauna provide only a limited but broadly C₃-oriented local isotopic reference. Sheep show a comparatively narrow δ¹³C range, whereas cattle, horses, and pigs display marked intraspecific variation, indicating differentiated pre-death feeding histories. Together with the seasonal and environmentally constrained lake-margin setting, these results suggest that Houmingzi functioned as a point of concentration and consumption receiving animals from more than one ecological or management background. Although specific origins and supply channels remain unresolved, the evidence reveals the material expression of differentiated animal provisioning at an individual mobile royal encampment and provides archaeological support for the multi-channel supply framework documented in historical sources.
The research presented in this article begins to address the benefits and drawbacks of employing paleo dermatoglyphics (i.e. ancient fingerprint analysis) with archaeological sealing data. Specifically, it investigates whether fingerprint ridge density is a viable tool for identifying sealers’ biological sexes. My data derive from clay sealings excavated at Shalfak fortress in Sudan dated to the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2055–1650 bce). Each sealing examined was assessed for whether it had a fingerprint, the fingerprint could be accurately photographed, and the fingerprint’s ridge density could be accurately calculated and interpreted as belonging to either a male or female. Further, the information obtained was assessed as to whether it added new information or shed light on females in administration and countersealing, key issues discussed in sealing studies today. Ultimately, the results demonstrate fingerprint ridge density is a viable and useful tool.
The study of hammerscale is a key for identifying ancient forging sites and restoring iron and steel forging processes, while the systematic research on hammerscale from Han-Jin periods sites in southwest China is still insufficient, and a unified identification standard for archaeological hammerscale has not been formed in China. In this paper, 21 ancient hammerscale samples excavated from Chengba site (Sichuan) and Guantian site (Hunan) were taken as the research objects, with 4 modern traditional forging hammerscale samples as the control group. Metallographic microscopy and SEM-EDS analysis were used to carry out systematic scientific analysis on the microstructure and chemical composition of the samples. The results show that the core identification indicators of archaeological hammerscale are the microstructure has a layered iron oxide structure formed by high-temperature forging oxidation, or chain silicate inclusions distributed along the forging direction; the main component is iron oxide (often > 90
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the lithic assemblage from Level G1 of El Cierro Cave (northern Spain), attributed to the Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian. The study comprises 2,829 items, including 2,800 knapped artefacts, six macrolithic tools and 23 unmodified pebbles. Lithic procurement is dominated by flint, followed by quartzite and minor amounts of quartz. Eleven flint types have been identified, with local raw materials prevailing, while regional and tracer groups occur in lower proportions, indicating selective long-distance connections within the Basque-Cantabrian Basin. Technological analysis reveals complete operational chains for flake production using locally available resources, alongside greater variability in laminar reduction strategies. Blade production is limited and clearly subordinate to flake-oriented technologies. The retouched tool assemblage, dominated by endscrapers, conforms to typical Upper Palaeolithic techno-typological patterns, whereas backed bladelets are poorly represented. Use-wear analysis indicates a range of activities involving macrolithic tools, potentially linked to both lithic production and the processing of organic materials. Overall, the Level G1 assemblage at El Cierro is characterised by a strong reliance on local raw materials, restricted circulation of distant flints and low investment in laminar production, reflecting procurement strategies operating primarily at a local scale and a technological organisation adapted to domestic activities and reduced mobility.
The border region, which lies between different regimes, is highly regarded because of its diverse population, dietary habits, and living conditions. The population around the Great Wall was particularly intriguing during the Ming Dynasty, but it remains unstudied archaeologically. The study uses a multidisciplinary approach that includes paleopathology, isotope analysis, and ancient DNA analysis to investigate two individuals found in a Ming Dynasty military fortress at Qingping Fort. Both individuals were middle-aged males. Pathological examinations revealed nasal bone fractures in both individuals, possibly indicating violent interactions within their group or small-scale inter-group conflict. Carbon isotope analysis indicated that their diet predominantly consisted of C4 plants, which reflected their dietary pattern of millet consumption. Nevertheless, the low δ¹⁵N values implied limited meat intake. The paleopathological evidence, in conjunction with these findings, suggests that the individuals lived in a harsh environment. Based on the analysis of ancient DNA and strontium isotopes, it seems that the individuals are most likely from the Yellow River Basin, and there is no evidence of Eastern steppe ancestry. These findings tentatively suggest that at least some residents of Qingping Fort during the Ming dynasty had close genetic connections with Central Plains populations. Given the small sample size, our conclusions are preliminary, and they emphasize the necessity for future studies with an expanded sample. This work offers a starting point for comprehending the lives of residents in Ming frontier societies and underscores the significance of integrating archaeology with a multidisciplinary approach.
The Pleistocene-Holocene transition witnessed diverse pathways to socio-economic complexity globally. In contrast to the agricultural trajectories, communities in the karst landscapes of southwestern China maintained a resilient, long-term foraging tradition. This study examines the technology and function of organic artifacts from Niupodong Cave, Guizhou, through the analysis of teeth and bone tools, and personal ornaments. The results reveal a diversified osseous technological repertoire, providing direct evidence for symbolic expression, garment making, freshwater fishing, and probable plant processing. Critically, the presence of marine shells indicates long-distance exchange or mobility networks linking this inland site to coastal regions at least 600 km away. These findings illuminate a pattern of gradual, locally embedded innovation where technological elaboration and expanding social networks enhanced a mixed foraging context without an immediate shift to agriculture. The Niupodong assemblage demonstrates the need to document regional technological and subsistence changes at a micro-scale to investigate the extent to which they relate to ecological resources, subsistence economy, and social organization during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in southwestern China.
Peiligang (9000 − 7000 BP) and Yangshao cultures (7000 − 5000 BP) are generally considered to be key stages of agricultural development in ancient China, featuring transitions from foraging lifestyles to increased reliance on grain and legume cultivation and pig husbandry. While recent advances in archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological and isotopic studies have transformed our understanding of the Chinese ancient economy, the extent to which the Neolithic subsistence was reflected in daily culinary practices remains an open and intriguing question. Organic residues preserved in pottery vessels can provide the novel information on ancient diets, vessel functions and food preparation activities. In this study, we conducted the pilot lipid residue study focusing on 68 sherds from five archaeological sites representing different phases of the Peiligang and Yangshao Culture (Jiahu, 9000 − 7500 BP; Xielaozhuang, 8600 − 7600 BP; Guozhuangnan, ca. 7000 BP; Zhangwangzhuang, 6300 − 5600 BP; Hunanguo, 5700 − 5000 BP) in the upper Huai River region. Pottery lipid residue analysis was conducted using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS). Our results show that porcine fat was more dominant in the Yangshao samples. Plant biomarkers from plant oils, epicuticular waxes, and millets were identified, indicating extensive plant processing in the pottery during the development of agriculture along the upper Huai River. Summarising the pottery residue studies along the Yangtze River and Yellow River regions during the Neolithic Age, pottery use connected with the processing of plant food can be commonly observed, as demonstrated in the Peiligang and Yangshao cases.
Lithic raw material sourcing is one of the most effective approaches for inferring exploitation territories during the Palaeolithic, including for Neanderthals. Certain raw materials, particularly chert, are especially well suited to this type of investigation because the distinctive characteristics of each geological source can be reliably identified through a combination of macroscopic observation, low-magnification analysis, and geochemical methods. With that in mind we questioned if chert sourcing would allow identification of territorial patterns for the Neanderthal populations of central Portugal, in western-most Iberia. To answer that question, we conducted an exploratory study comparing archaeological cherts from Gruta Nova da Columbeira, Praia Rei Cortiço and Mira Nascente with geological samples from nearby sources using macroscopic, low-magnification PIXE and pXRF analysis. Our results showed similarities between archaeological and geological cherts proving that the sites, sources and analytical protocols used were viable for such investigation and, therefore, can be developed and refined in the future. They also showed that correspondences between geological and archaeological cherts are limited to the area between the coast and the western façade of the first mountain ridge (Serra d’Áire e Candeeiros) to the east, and between the Cesaredas Plateau to the south and the River Lis to the north. This territory is adjacent to the area already delimited by chert sourcing and isotopic analysis for the Neanderthals that occupied Oliveira Cave, located at the southeastern façade of the same mountain range. This contributes to a better understanding of Neanderthal territorial patterns, which is particularly important in regions where research is underdeveloped and where identifying other patterns of variability, particularly across time, has proven difficult.
In recent years, the number of studies on bone tools from Middle Palaeolithic contexts has increased considerably. Mainly identified as retouchers and predominantly documented during the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic, around 50 to 40 ka BP, these bone tools provide key insights into Homo neanderthalensis behaviour. The bone tool assemblage from Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais, northern France, MIS 7), although never studied in detail, is one of the largest known for early Neanderthal occupations in northern France. Several approaches can be applied to the study of bone artefacts, particularly those focusing on raw material management and techno-functional aspects. Owing to the exceptional preservation of its surfaces, the Biache-Saint-Vaast material is especially well-suited for testing different analytical techniques. Here, we present the results of a multi-scalar approach combining anatomical studies, palaeoproteomics (ZooMS and LC-MS/MS), taphonomy, traceology, and experimentation. Applied to 10 archaeological artefacts, this study represents the first successful application of such an approach to ancient bone tools. Our results highlight the potential and importance of conducting similarly comprehensive studies on larger assemblages of bone artefacts, including those recovered from ancient open-air contexts, as well as the need to develop additional comparative datasets.
In the prehistoric record, the presence of small-sized resources including gastropods is often viewed as a marker of increased dietary breadth, declining foraging efficiency and/or flexible subsistence patterns involving diversified foraging activities. However, researchers often find it difficult to distinguish natural gastropod accumulations from those created by anthropogenic processes. Here we report on the context, profitability and methods of the seasonal hand-collecting and processing of terrestrial gastropods based on the observations of contemporary Central African forest foragers. In this context, gastropods were exploited in response to temporary and seasonal reductions in the availability of meat and changes in labor demands that allowed women and children to engage in this activity. Analyses of faunal remains from a wet season encampment presented here shows how different kinds of gastropod processing are reflected in the ethnoarchaeological record. These analyses validate several of the characteristics currently used by archaeologists to identify anthropogenic gastropod assemblages. Overall, the degree of burning, specimen completeness, and spatial distribution of snail shells parallels that of other small-sized fauna. Some characteristics, such as shell completeness and spatial association, can reflect different preparation techniques that, in this case, may be indicators of ethnic identity and site clean-up activities. These data also have implications for how terrestrial gastropod consumption might be reflected in other kinds of archaeological evidence. The example discussed here can serve as a model to help archaeologists distinguish diversified seasonal foraging from larger-scale dietary shifts.
The production and circulation of Inka ceramics were central to structuring negotiations between the Inka state and local communities annexed to Tawantinsuyu, as well as to strategies of imperial legitimization and control. Archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence indicates that distinctive Inka ceramics—such as urpus (or aríbalos) and shallow plates, often decorated with polychrome designs—were used in the provinces to emphasize the state’s role as both a symbolic and material sponsor. Studies of Inka ceramic production show that potters were relocated throughout the empire to provincial administrative centers and production enclaves, including in Qullasuyu, the southeastern sector of Tawantinsuyu. However, the limited identification of Inka-style pottery production sites in Qullasuyu, together with the scarcity of regional analyses of ceramic technology, has hindered our understanding of the origins of Inka vessels circulating in the southern provinces—specifically whether they were produced in centralized workshops, locally produced, imported, or resulted from multiple production strategies. Using ceramic petrographic analysis and neutron activation analysis, this study shows that Inka ceramic production and circulation in one region of Qullasuyu was more complex than previously assumed. The results highlight the compositional diversity of Inka-style ceramics associated with the Arica–Carangas macroregion, spanning present-day northern Chile and western Bolivia, revealing that multiple strategies of production and distribution operated within this province. This diversity reflects varied production origins, interpreted as the material expression of differentiated circulation and distribution networks of Inka-style pottery across the southern provinces. Overall, the findings support the absence of a centralized system of pottery production, provide no evidence for local manufacture in the study area, and suggest that vessels circulated through multiple, differentiated networks of interaction.
Red slip pottery represents one of the most technologically and morphologically distinctive ceramic traditions of the South Caucasus. Its appearance and initial phase of development, known as Urartian Red Burnished Ware, are closely linked with the existence of the Urartian Kingdom during the Middle Iron Age. This study examines patterns of production and distribution of red slip pottery in the northeastern provinces of the Urartian Kingdom, covering the area between the Ararat Plain and Lake Sevan. The analysis is based on a technological and provenance study of 87 potsherds from ten archaeological sites dated to the 8th–6th centuries BCE. The analytical framework combines thin-section petrography, ICP-MS geochemical analyses of ceramic fabrics, and SEM-EDS investigations of the microstructure and chemical composition of the red slip. The results point to the existence of at least four production centers within the region, characterised by a broadly standardised slip technology and more variable recipes of the ceramic bodies. These findings indicate that the availability of suitable raw materials for red slip production likely played a major role in constraining both the scale of manufacture and the spatial distribution of red- slip pottery. Moreover, access to this pottery appears to have been influenced by the position of individual settlements within the regional economic system, particularly their administrative, political, or economic significance within the Urartian Kingdom.
Pointed tools are common throughout the Acheulean–Middle Stone Age (MSA: 300–35 ka) transition and are often considered a hallmark of the MSA. Produced through different reduction systems, they provide an opportunity to examine whether variation in lithic reduction strategies is associated with differences in tool morphology and volumetric properties. To address this, we analyze 115 complete pointed tools from Gademotta (ETH-72-8B) and Kulkuletti (ETH-72-1) in the Main Ethiopian Rift (c. 280–182 ka). We combine technological analysis with morpho-volumetric measures (Tip Cross-Sectional Area and Perimeter) and geometric morphometric approaches, including Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA) applied to 2D and pseudo-3D outlines derived from 3D models. Despite clear technological differences between assemblages, morphometric analyses reveal extensive overlap. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identifies no discrete shape categories, and multivariate regressions indicate weak allometric effects. Variation in TCSA and TCSP is not statistically significant, although ETH-72-1 shows greater dispersion. A significant difference is observed only at the distal cross-section, indicating localized variation rather than overall morphological divergence. These results indicate that technological variation did not produce distinct morphological outcomes but instead generated continuous variability within a shared design framework, reflecting limited variability rather than morphological diversification. These findings further inform the Acheulean-MSA transition, suggesting a reorganization and transformation of production strategies rather than a redesign of tool concepts, and highlighting technological flexibility within stable design frameworks.
The shift from the Copper Age (c. 3600–2700 BCE) to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2700–2000 BCE) in Transylvania (Romania) was a period of significant changes in mortuary practices. We combine bone histology with bioarchaeological and archaeological assessments of mortuary variability to better understand the organization and diversity of funerary practices in the region. Bone histology, the study of microscopic structures of connective tissues in bone, can help disentangle complex mortuary programs. In this study we detail histological analyses of burials from two Early Bronze Age cemeteries: Meteș-La Meteșel, an upland cemetery associated with local Transylvanian communities, and Hăpria, a lowland cemetery associated with Yamnaya migrants. We identify the presence of multiple different pathways from death to burial in primary inhumations and secondary inhumations at these sites. The results here provide new insights into the complex process of cultural exchange during a time of social transformation and high human mobility.
The Copper to Middle Bronze Ages are particularly significant times in Italian Protohistory, as they were marked by major dietary, social, and technological transformations. Stable isotope analysis has become a key tool in reconstructing past human diets. Although its application has expanded across the Italian Peninsula over the past decade, data for the Copper Age in northern Italy remain limited, and geographic coverage is still uneven. This study presents new isotopic evidence on 11 faunal specimens, and 101 humans from the province of Mantua (Lombardy), a region with a dense concentration of funerary contexts dating from the Copper Age to the Middle Bronze Age. The results reveal a consistent dietary pattern across the periods investigated, with protein intake derived predominantly from terrestrial animal sources and C3 plants; no significant dietary differences were observed between sexes or age groups. The dietary continuity observed across nearly a millennium suggests that, despite broader socio-economic changes documented in the archaeological record, subsistence strategies in this region remained stable. The dietary homogeneity observed among buried individuals suggests consistent dietary practices within the funerary population. This study provides one of the first isotopic datasets from Northern Italy for the Copper Age and offers a new perspective on subsistence strategies in protohistoric Lombardy.
Understanding how Neanderthals adapted lithic technologies to varying environmental and raw-material conditions is fundamental to exploring their behavioural variability over time and space. Here we investigate this question via a quantitative techno-typological comparison of two late Middle Paleolithic discoidal assemblages from southwestern France – Le Moustier and Pech de l’Azé IV. Our results show that Neanderthal groups at both sites employed a highly similar chaîne opératoire typical of Discoid-Denticulate Mousterian assemblages, despite contrasting raw material quality and nodule size, as well as pronounced environmental instability during Marine Isotope Stage 3. Neanderthal technological responses to varying raw material conditions primarily involved adjustments in reduction intensity rather than shifts in flake production methods. The Pech-de-l’Azé IV assemblage shows more intensive core reduction and higher recycling associated with the exploitation of small, lower-quality nodules, whereas the Le Moustier assemblage reflects less intensive reduction of larger, better-quality flint nodules. Our findings highlight the flexibility of the discoidal system to varying raw material constraints while producing the consistent products with identical morphologies. The behavioural plasticity of late Neanderthal groups in southwestern France during Marine Isotope Stage 3 is reflected in the capacity to assess the physical properties and exploit raw materials of varying quality and size in differing resource settings while maintaining a stable technological tradition.
