A half-century ago, the United States Congress passed Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act , to help protect the rights of youth with disabilities. Prior to 1975, many children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs) were denied access to less restrictive learning environments with their peers. Unfortunately, the increased placement of students with EBD within public schools coincided with an increased use of harsh and abusive practices to manage these students. Perhaps among the most controversial procedures adopted by many schools has been the use of restraint, which has resulted in numerous injuries and a number of student deaths. This article provides a critical overview of the controversial issues associated with the use of restraint procedures regarding its (a) safety, (b) inappropriate use, (c) disproportionate use among students with disabilities, (d) inadequate staff training in their use, (e) insufficient documentation, and (f) lack of transparency and oversight. We also discuss current state policies, recent legislation and court decisions, as well as position statements from professional organizations and federal agencies regarding the use of these procedures in schools. Recommendations are provided regarding the use of restraint in schools, alternatives to restraint, and the need for future research.
This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of self-management strategies in enhancing the teaching performance of educators, with a focus on special education contexts. Thirty-six studies, including peer-reviewed articles and gray literature, were evaluated for methodological rigor using the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Design Standards. Of these, 26 studies meeting the standards with or without reservations were further analyzed using descriptive review, meta-analysis, and moderator analysis. Findings revealed self-monitoring is the most frequently used self-management strategy. Among the educators included in the studies, the majority were special education teachers. Effect sizes were calculated using Tau- U for all 26 studies, between-case standardized mean difference (BC-SMD) for 25 studies, and performance-criteria-based effect size (PCES) for 13 studies reporting a mastery criterion. The overall Tau- U indicated a very large effect size of 0.88 (CI 95 = [0.74, 1]), and BC-SMD resulted in a large effect size of 0.87 (CI 95 = [0.77, 0.98]). The PCES showed an overall effective effect size of 1.15 (CI 95 = [1.07, 1.23]). Moderator analysis revealed behavior-specific praise, and fewer years of teaching experience were associated with higher teaching performance effect sizes compared to other relevant categories; however, years of teaching experience and higher teaching performance were positively associated when using BC-SMD calculations. Detailed findings along with corresponding recommendations are discussed.
Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) represent a diverse group of individuals, often characterized by internalizing and/or externalizing behavior patterns and comprised of students receiving special education services and those who do not. As the field seeks to identify evidence-based practices for students with EBD, we need a better understanding of the characteristics of students included under the umbrella of EBD. To accomplish this task, we conducted a hand search of the last 10 years (2015–2024) of intervention research within four prominent journals in the field of EBD. Our search yielded 102 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Once identified, we coded articles in terms of student, setting, and study characteristics, with particular focus on the procedures for screening, identification, and evaluation, to better understand the students sampled within EBD intervention research. Implications of these findings, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. These findings point to a call for future researchers to engage in (a) clear distinction of EBD terminology; (b) explicit standards for the identification and description of student participants; (c) inclusion of students with internalizing, externalizing, and co-occurring behavior patterns; (d) combined or comprehensive interventions to support the complex needs of this population; and (e) more intervention research.
Interventions for students with or at-risk of emotional/behavioral disorders (EBDs) frequently target idiosyncratic behaviors defined by teachers, behavior specialists, or researchers. Consequently, the extent to which a problem behavior exists and the operationalization of the problem behavior largely depend on the perceptions of school staff. A number of research practices, including the use of standardized screening measures and the assessment of social validity, are designed to ensure that students who receive behavior interventions present with legitimate problems that are meaningful to stakeholders. The prevalence of such methods in recent studies for children with EBD remains unclear. This review examined the use of methods to validate the need for behavior intervention in single-case design studies involving EBD published in Behavior Disorders from 2000 to 2021. Identified articles ( n = 34) featured 129 student participants. Teachers were typically responsible for identifying study participants; however, standardized screening methods were used in most articles. Targeted behaviors were generally created by researchers or teachers. Task engagement represented the dependent variable in more than 50% of studies. Less than half of the articles featured social validity, with many procedures assessing both teacher and student perspectives. Key findings, limitations, and implications for research and practice are discussed.
Racialized and historically produced disparities and disproportionalities in emotional/behavioral disorders are addressable, but only when their cultural nature and contextual complexities are examined through lenses accounting for racism, ableism, bias, and bureaucratic professionalization. We synthesize knowledge about racial disparities in identification, discipline, exclusion, and services, situating patterns within dynamic cultural, spatial, legal, and policy contexts. We argue that dominant research paradigms overly rely on psychological and medicalized framings that treat behaviors as static traits rather than dynamic phenomena embedded in culturally infused, relational, and historically situated contexts. Starting from the premise that behavior and emotion emerge through dynamic relationships, we build on the science of learning and development to advance a frame-shifting research approach—one that examines moment-to-moment classroom interactions, longitudinal experiences across settings, and macro- and microlevel forces, including racialized histories, policies, and resource distribution. Because disparities are rooted in cultural and historical conditions, technical solutions cannot eliminate them. By advancing a situated, dynamic approach, we address individual and contextual heterogeneity that national analyses of racial disparities obscure, illuminate mechanisms sustaining disparities, and stimulate interdisciplinary inquiry to inform just and equitable policy and practice. Absent such transformation, these entrenched disparities will foreclose opportunity and perpetuate harm for our most marginalized students.
Anxiety disorders are the most commonly diagnosed mental health challenge in adolescents. Teachers have emerged as frontline referral agents for students in emotional distress. However, teachers do not consistently identify and refer anxious students for services. Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior posits that attitudes predict behavior, which provides a useful framework for this issue. Using vignettes, the current study examined the relationship between personal mental health attitudes and help-seeking intentions to understand how these aspects might impact problem identification and referral. One hundred thirty-seven secondary teachers participated in this study. Mixed-effects regression modeling examined the predictive relationships between these variables. Teachers' personal mental health attitudes significantly predicted the accuracy of ratings for moderate and severe symptomology and referral decisions. Help-seeking intentions significantly predicted accuracy and referral decisions in the moderate and severe scenarios. There was also a small but statistically significant negative association with the accuracy of ratings in the mild scenario. Furthermore, teachers' perceived severity of student symptoms was the strongest predictor of referral decisions, but mental health attitudes continued to increase the likelihood of prediction, even after accounting for perceived severity. Potential implications for research and practice are discussed.
Behavior intervention technologies (BITs) are digital tools designed to support behavior change through strategies such as goal-setting, monitoring, feedback, and reinforcement. While BITs have been widely studied in the health and wellness fields, research on their application in education settings is emerging. In this pilot study, we examined the effects of a new, enhanced version of MoBeGo (Monitoring Behavior on the Go) on one fourth-grade grade student's academic engagement (AE) and disruptive behavior (DB) in both general and special education settings. Using AB single-case designs, the student and two teachers implemented MoBeGo, a BIT that involves teachers assessing students' behavior, goal-setting, students self-monitoring their own behavior, and feedback. Results indicated improvements in AE and decreases in DB during intervention compared with baseline in both settings, with the greatest improvements in the general education classroom. Teachers and the student rated the social validity of MoBeGo favorably. We discuss key findings, limitations, and future directions in this brief report.
This article employs an intersectional and interdisciplinary Disability Studies in Education (DSE) framework to critically analyze the emotional and behavioral disorder (EBD) label and the learning disability (LD) label across federal, institutional, and individual levels. We address two pressing equity issues: the persistent racial disproportionality in special education and the limited attention to multilingual learners (MLLs) of Color with dis/Abilities (MLLsWDs) labeled with EBD. Building on scholarship that identifies racism and ableism as interlocking forces that racialize dis/Ability, we interrogate how dominant master narratives about ability, dis/Ability, race, and language both sustain and obscure inequities. We employ master narrative methodology, critical policy analysis, a qualitative single-case study, and critical quantitative methods to analyze Minnesota data and to examine the discursive, material, and emotional dimensions of the EBD label. By foregrounding the intersectional racialization of dis/Ability, this analysis highlights the complexity of disproportionality and calls for reimagining educational practices that disrupt deficit logics and expand equity for MLLsWD.
Understanding the function of challenging behaviors is essential for developing effective interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To determine the function of challenging behaviors, descriptive assessment and functional analysis can be used; however, there are some strengths and limitations of these methods. The current study systematically compared three assessment methods: (1) descriptive assessment, (2) traditional functional analysis (TFA), and (3) trial-based functional analysis (TBFA). The descriptive assessment was conducted first and served as an initial hypothesis-generating method regarding the function of challenging behaviors. Six male children with ASD, ages 12 to 16 years, participated in the study. Results showed exact correspondence between both types of FAs and between descriptive assessment and FAs for five of the six participants. The TBFA identified behavioral function with strong agreement to TFA, required 77% less time, and did not necessitate repeated reinforcement of challenging behavior. These findings suggest that both functional analysis (FA) methods are highly consistent with descriptive assessment outcomes and that TBFA offers a practical, efficient alternative for practice settings. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.
Patterns of significant challenging behavior, unilateral placement decisions made by the courts, and the large percentage of students with disabilities present unique challenges to educators within the juvenile justice setting. This study employed a single-subject, multiple-baseline across-participants design to examine the impact of a virtual professional development model paired with coaching on teacher rates of two evidence-based classroom strategies, opportunities to respond and behavior-specific praise, and student problem behavior. Results from the study indicate that the professional development alone did not change teacher or student behavior; however, the addition of coaching led to increased use of opportunities to respond and behavior-specific praise. Throughout the intervention, the students' problem behavior did not change. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
High-quality training in evidence-based practices during pre-service preparation is essential for improving special education outcomes. Multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) preference assessments are critical for identifying effective reinforcers, yet pre-service teachers often lack systematic training in these procedures. This study evaluated a remote Behavioral Skills Training (BST) package for teaching MSWO implementation to pre-service special education teachers. Using a delayed multiple probe design, four pre-service teachers received remote BST consisting of instructional presentation, video modeling, guided practice, and individualized feedback. The dependent variable was procedural fidelity measured using a nine-step task analysis. All participants demonstrated immediate improvements from baseline (0%-80% accuracy) to 100% implementation fidelity following intervention. Skills maintained at 100% accuracy during 1-week follow-up. Social validity ratings revealed unanimous approval for training effectiveness (M = 5.0/5.0), although mixed ratings for future implementation likelihood (M = 4.0/5.0, range: 3-5). Remote BST was used to effectively train pre-service teachers to implement MSWO preference assessments with high fidelity and short-term maintenance. These findings provide initial evidence for remote training approaches in special education teacher preparation, although replication across diverse settings and with student populations is needed to establish broader generalizability.
This qualitative study examines how novice teachers, through a justice-rooted Teacher Inquiry Group, used storytelling to reflect on exclusionary discipline and reimagine their roles. By attuning to the children who remain after a peer's removal, teachers witnessed acts of care and kinship that challenged dominant disciplinary logics. Storytelling became a relational practice-pushing through fear, revealing fugitivity, and cultivating care-rooted pedagogies. Through discourse and abductive analysis, the study shows how teachers co-created classroom communities grounded in repair rather than removal. Ultimately, this work affirms that transforming discipline requires not only policy change, but also new ways of listening, sensing, and being.
Restraint and seclusion are practices used by educators to intervene when a student is in imminent danger of hurting themselves or others. These practices are often misused, resulting in negative long-term emotional, behavioral, and academic impacts on students and families. Although restraint and seclusion practices are recognized as dangerous and abusive, there is no federal legislation restricting their use, and states are tasked with developing their own protections for students. The United States Department of Education issued 15 guiding principles to assist states when developing laws governing the use of restraint and seclusion. The current study extends previous research by using micro-coding to analyze and compare how states address each of the 15 guiding principles. Across states, there were considerable inconsistencies in the number of principles covered in state laws and in how each principle was addressed. Recommendations are provided for policymakers at the district and state levels as they review and revise policies and laws to more consistently address the 15 guiding principles and better protect students from the misuse of restraint and seclusion practices.
Token economies are a commonly used evidence-based practice to increase appropriate behavior in classrooms and other instructional settings. However, little is known about the perceptions of teachers, students, and parents regarding the practice. Therefore, we examined the social validity of token economy interventions in instructional settings in this Registered Report systematic review. One hundred thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed; 29 of those studies (25.6%) systematically evaluated social validity. The most common type of social validity evaluation was surveys involving the teachers or students at the end of the study. Findings suggest that most parents and students had a positive perception of the goals, procedures, and outcomes of the practice. However, teachers' perceptions were more mixed. Overall, teachers found token economies to be beneficial; however, several noted that implementing them with fidelity was time consuming and challenging. Implications of these findings are discussed.
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to evaluate the extent to which high school special education teachers could implement a technology-based self-monitoring intervention, I-Connect, after completing a brief, asynchronous online training. Participants included three high school special education teachers and four students receiving special education who implemented I-Connect in their classrooms across 3 school weeks with minimal researcher involvement. Data were collected on completion of training materials, intervention design decisions, ongoing data-based individualization, social validity, and teacher perceptions of student behavior. Analysis included evaluating adherence to training materials and research-based recommendations for self-monitoring intervention design, data-based individualization, and changes in social validity from pre- to post-intervention. Limitations, directions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.
Professionals working with individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities in Saudi Arabia have identified limited professional development opportunities related to autism as a persistent challenge. They also report insufficient use of data to inform decisions regarding plans and instructions for autistic individuals. To address these needs, we culturally and linguistically adapted online training modules that cover strategies based on applied behavior analysis (ABA) principles to address challenging behaviors exhibited by individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities. We employed a convergent mixed-methods design to assess the training modules' impact on the participants' knowledge and self-efficacy and evaluate the social validity of the training modules. We collected quantitative data using various scales to assess knowledge and self-efficacy and gathered qualitative data via semi-structured interviews and a social validity questionnaire. The results indicate that the culturally and linguistically adapted online training modules positively impacted the participants' knowledge and self-efficacy and were perceived as socially valid, although participants identified areas for improvement. Limitations and implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Behavior intervention plans (BIPs) represent an important document in communicating a set of strategies to ameliorate behavior problems of students with disabilities. However, little is known about how in-service teachers implement a range of these strategies. Using a large-scale survey, this study examined teachers' use of 18 behavior support strategies and statistical predictors of their use. Respondents included 655 certified special educators (pre-K through transition) with at least one student with a BIP. Results indicated that teachers use general strategies, like modeling and consistent routines, most frequently and specialized strategies, like visual schedules or token economies, least frequently. Factor analyses showed that teachers package these strategies into three factors: General Behavior Supports, Promoting Independence Supports, and Specialized Behavior Supports. Some statistical predictors were unique to one factor, while others, like behavioral internship experiences and school supports, were consistent across all factors. In addition, teachers who had caseloads with neither an emotional disturbance (ED) nor autism diagnosis implemented behavior support strategies less frequently. Future research, training, and policy implications are discussed.
Classroom teachers may be tasked with implementing behavior intervention plans (BIPs) requiring intensive individualized intervention for students with significant behavioral needs. However, depending on teacher knowledge and experience, districts may need more time, resources, or personnel to provide sufficient support and training for educators to ensure that BIPs are implemented with fidelity. This study used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across participants to investigate the effects of a delayed online performance feedback intervention on increasing mean levels of fidelity of BIP implementation across two classroom teachers. Data indicate that both participants showed increases in the mean fidelity of BIP implementation following intervention. A pre-intervention/post-intervention social validity survey indicated high teacher acceptance of the delayed online performance feedback intervention, suggesting the intervention may be helpful for districts with limited resources and a cost/time-effective alternative to traditional teacher training models that could be implemented district-wide. Future research directions are discussed.
Crisis management programs are marketed to help special education professionals support students with disabilities who engage in challenging behavior. There is a critical need to appraise the evidence supporting these programs, particularly whether they benefit students in crisis intervention and prevention. This need is particularly urgent given documented misapplication and overuse of physical restraint, which is a common component of these programs. The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate the research in support of crisis management programs that target PK-12 students with disabilities who display challenging behavior in educational settings. We conducted database searches, ancestral searches, and website searches of organizations that produce crisis management programs to identify published and unpublished studies evaluating the programs. Our search process yielded just six studies evaluating five of 23 commercially available crisis management programs. Given the scarcity of supporting studies, none of the programs meet currently established thresholds for evidence-based practice in special education. Our review identifies a critical need for rigorous research on these programs to inform practice and policy, ensuring student safety and wellbeing. Consumers should exercise caution in adopting these programs based on claims made by the programs’ producers.
This special issue examines the application of open-science practices-particularly registered reports-to systematic reviews and meta-analyses in special education and synthesizes evidence for three widely used classroom interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD): self-determination interventions, time-out, and token economies. The issue was motivated by gaps identified in prior mega-reviews and a broader concern about publication bias and methodological opacity in the review literature. Collectively, the papers highlight persistent methodological and reporting limitations and argue that broader adoption of open-science practices is essential to reduce bias, enhance replicability, and better inform equitable, scalable practices for students with EBD. Finally, in a concluding commentary, experts discuss the potential benefits and challenges of publishing systematic reviews as registered reports and offer practical recommendations.
