Coming from over 10 years of experience in cave monitoring in northeast Italy, Gruppo Speleologico Talpe del Carso, has designed Riki and Dolphin: customizable, low cost, and easy to assemble tools for getting real time data transmission from the bottom of a cave, even underwater, to a webserver. Their use has been tested to monitor air temperature inside the Abisso Bonetti Cave (Classical Karst, Italy), proving for the first time that a cave in Gorizian Karst can systematically be colder than the outdoor temperature even in winter, recording an internal temperature even lower than 0 degrees C. The Dolphin device can be installed hundreds of meters deep inside a cave, transmitting data with standard Modbus protocol over an Ethernet cable to Riki, the external ground station, which also supplies power to the entire system with a battery that lasts many months. Riki then sends data through the LoRaWAN network (with a Dragino transmitter) straight to a webserver for data collection and visualization in real time (using Grafana). This allows cavers to enter the cave once and then get data every few minutes ideally forever. The Riki-Dolphin-Dragino-Grafana is a fully integrated solution, where each step is documented and released as Free Open-Source hardware and software.
This study investigates the relationship between sinkhole occurrence and distance to drainage in the Sivrihisar region (Central Turkey) and evaluates the suitability of different regression approaches for modeling clustered count data in karst terrains. A comprehensive inventory of 104 sinkholes developed within the Neogene lacustrine limestones of the Akp & imath;nar Formation was compiled using official records, remote sensing analyses, and detailed field surveys. Sinkhole occurrences were analyzed relative to a drainage network derived from a high-resolution Digital Surface Model and grouped by proximity to drainage lines. Linear Regression (LM), Poisson Regression (PR), and Negative Binomial Regression (NBR) models were comparatively applied to quantify the relationship between sinkhole frequency and drainage proximity. The results reveal a statistically significant negative relationship: sinkhole occurrences are strongly concentrated near drainage networks and decrease rapidly with increasing distance. Exploratory data analysis indicates pronounced overdispersion in the sinkhole count data, with variance substantially exceeding the mean, thereby violating the PR model's assumptions. Consistent with this data structure, 10-fold cross-validation demonstrates that the NBR model provides the most reliable predictive performance by explicitly accounting for clustering and excess variance, outperforming both LM and PR models. Hydrogeochemical observations supported the geological interpretation, indicating that sinkhole development is associated with carbonate dissolution in the Akp & imath;nar Formation. Overall, the findings emphasize that appropriate statistical model selection is pivotal for reliable spatial assessment of sinkhole probability and highlight the dominant influence of drainage-controlled hydrological processes on sinkhole distribution at the regional scale.
Subterranean spaces, such as caves with openings to the surface, represent unique environments characterized by limited resources derived from photosynthetic primary production. Consequently, organic inputs from organisms inhabiting above- and belowground habitats, such as bats, play a crucial role in maintaining cave ecosystems. However, in show caves converted into tourist attractions, environmental changes have progressed without sufficient ecological assessment. One important factor is the impact of photosynthetic organisms colonizing around artificial lights, known as lampenflora, on cave ecosystems. Lampenflora growth may influence invertebrate distribution and resource use; however, its impact on both aspects has been poorly evaluated. In this study, we investigated the effects of lampenflora growth on invertebrate distribution and resource use in a well-managed Japanese show cave, Ryusen-do, while considering the influence of bat fecal deposition. Our generalized linear mixed model revealed that bat feces and guano are the primary factors determining invertebrate distribution within the cave. We also suggest that lampenflora growth negatively affected troglomorphic species but may benefit non-troglomorphic species by providing habitat structure and additional food resources through detritus. Stable isotope analyses further supported differences in the food resources used by invertebrates between tourist and non-tourist areas. Because the impact of lampenflora was detected even in the well-managed Ryusen-do Cave, we suggest that less well-managed show caves may experience more severe ecological impacts due to lampenflora invasion. Our findings highlight the importance of evaluating and managing lampenflora as part of show cave conservation.
The mineralogical and geochemical composition of cave sediments provides crucial insights into past climatic and biological dynamics. This study investigates the authigenic crusts of San Teodoro Cave (Sicily), a key Upper Pleistocene paleontological site, through a multianalytical approach. The cave hosts two superimposed phosphatic crusts, separated by sterile sediment, reflecting shifts in depositional and post-depositional conditions. Our analyses reveal a complex mineral assemblage consisting of calcite, aragonite, and various phosphate phases. Calcite is the dominant phase in the older crust, whereas the presence of aragonite in the younger brown crust likely indicates periods of increased aridity, potentially corresponding to conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum. Aragonite precipitation was favored by elevated Mg/Ca ratios, limited water infiltration, and kinetically controlled processes. Phosphate minerals, derived from bat guano, record localized pH variations and biologically mediated geochemical activity. The development of stable crusts without evidence of bioturbation further suggests the cessation of hyena activity within the cave. These findings demonstrate that the aragonite-phosphate association is a probable indicator of extreme dryness and specific taphonomic pathways in Mediterranean Pleistocene cave environments, offering a high-resolution proxy for paleoenvironmental reconstruction during the driest phases of the Late Pleistocene.
Conglomerate caves are rare, and only a few have been described in the scientific literature. Here, we present a newly discovered and significant cave system in SW Hungary, comprising over 500 m of upper passages and a shorter, lower section of a through-cave developed in Lower-Middle Miocene conglomerates. The formation of these cave passages was controlled chiefly by bedding and fractures. Dissolution has produced typical karstification morphologies, whereas corrasion, granular disintegration, and rock collapse have also played a role in shaping the cave. The cave is dominated by vadose-zone morphologies, but sediment infills indicating upward water flow, along with ceiling solution features, suggest intervals of paragenetic dissolution. The several meterthick clastic infill consists of gravel and reworked loess, and the cave is decorated with various speleothems. The cave has a rich fossil assemblage composed of Miocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene vertebrate remains, including a Miocene rhinocerotid mandible, fish and reptile remains and coprolites, along with two species of mammoth and other large mammals of Pleistocene age. The modern taphocoenosis is described to provide an analogue for interpreting fossil cave assemblages. It contains both disarticulated and associated bones, mostly from large herbivores, medium and small sized carnivores, small mammals, and even fish. They entered the cave both on their own and as prey carried by predators. Fluctuations in the karst water table may have contributed to the trapping and deaths of animals. The abundant tectonic features in the cave indicate that the host rocks and their first generation deformations formed during Pannonian Basin rifting, followed by later strike-slip faulting. Fossils provide a minimum age of 0.8-0.7 Ma for the cave, whereas conduit geometry and exotic clastic infill point to an even older age. Recent deposition of reworked loess has narrowed cave passages, affecting accessibility, which is also influenced by precipitation-driven karst water table oscillations.
Studying caves with minimal human contact offers insights into antimicrobial resistance before human influence. In this study, we isolated 315 bacterial strains from Sorcerer's Cave in Texas and evaluated their resistance to seven common antimicrobials. Under half (41.4%) of the Gram-positive isolates and 68.4% of the Gram-negative isolates were resistant to three or more antimicrobials. The two most common genera identified were Pseudomonas and Bacillus. Compared to bacteria isolated in previous cave studies, Sorcerer's Cave bacteria exhibited more extensive antimicrobial resistance. This study underscores the importance of minimally disturbed cave environments in advancing our knowledge of antimicrobial resistance present in these settings.
An inventory of speleothems primarily composed of the closely related sulfate minerals baryte (BaSO4) and celestine (SrSO4) in Lechuguilla Cave (New Mexico, USA) has revealed an extraordinary variety. This includes subaerial stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone, coralloids, wall crusts, floor crystals, snow, frostwork, and subaqueous pool crystals. Large baryte and celestine crystals have also been documented in hydrothermal veins in the host rock, predating the cave and truncated when intersected by it. The respective carbonate mineral phases witherite (BaCO3) and strontianite (SrCO3), in contrast, were found to be rare in the studied speleothem samples, representing the first confirmed records from this cave. Baryte speleothems are typically composed of pure baryte, whereas celestine is usually syntactically intergrown with small baryte crystals and forms part of the most diverse assemblages of secondary cave minerals recorded in the cave to date, including species of the following mineral groups: carbonates (calcite, dolomite, aragonite, huntite, hydromagnesite, strontianite, and witherite), sulfates (gypsum), oxides and hydroxides (undetermined Mn/Fe-oxides or hydroxides), silicates (quartz, chalcedony, opal/cristobalite/tridymite, and montmorillonite), halogenides (fluorite), and vanadates (metatyuyamunite). Based on Th-230/U-series dating of directly associated carbonate minerals and gypsum, the age of formation of the various types of baryte and celestine speleothems was constrained to a range from the Middle Pleistocene to the Holocene. This confirms a formation during the ongoing post-hydrothermal and post-SAS (sulphuric acid speleogenesis) phase of epigenic normal temperature cave development. Six samples fall outside the dating range with close to secular equilibrium isotope ratios and are thus likely older than similar to 600 ka. While baryte stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone, and pool crystals are still forming, celestine minerogenesis, except for some of the coralloids, appears to have largely ceased in Lechuguilla Cave.
Cave mapping representsoneof themostcomplexchallengesingeomorphologicalcartography, as it must convey the true three-dimensional geometry of subterranean spaces such as overlapping passages, irregular cross-sections, and variable ceiling and floor morphologies, within a two-dimensional framework. This study examines the methodological and interpretive challenges of cave mapping, utilizing the Gamssteigh & ouml;hle Cave in the Austrian Alps as a case study. During the 11 years of exploration, over 10 km of passages were surveyed using the DistoX vector survey method. Yet the complex morphological forms necessitated deviations from the standard symbology recommended by the International Union of Speleology. Several key visualization challenges are analyzed, including subvertical pits, overlapping passages, and 3D maze-like networks. Solutions such as multiple projection planes, transparency effects, perpendicular cross-sections, and splitting maps into separate sheets are proposed to maintain readability and spatial context. We evaluate traditional vs. LiDAR-based mapping, concluding that while dense 3D point clouds offer exceptional precision, they do not inherently yield readable or informative maps. Cartographic generalization, with its interpretative input of the cartographer, remains indispensable for transforming spatial data into coherent and communicative cave maps. LiDAR and photogrammetry greatly enhance visualization and quantitative analysis but complement rather than replace traditional mapping.
Underwater connectivity and flow paths in the saturated zone of hypogenic sulfuric acid speleogenesis (SAS) karst remain unclear, despite sustained research over the past 30 years. Being regarded as sources of pristine H2S-charged water, narrow inflow conduits called "feeders" are typically considered primary sources of water and hotspots of speleogenesis. In southeastern Albania, there is a newly discovered active SAS karst system comprising numerous caves and springs. Tracer tests were conducted to investigate the connection of these caves to the surrounding springs and to characterize the flow paths. The results show that water flows from cave lakes to all but one spring at a similar velocity, as in epigenic karst, including the feeders. These results indicate that feeders are not sources of deep, pristine groundwater. Instead, a mixture of water from lakes in upstream caves and deep groundwater flows to them. A SAS model was modified: deep, H2S-charged groundwater causes intense enlargement of the caves until major collapses occur, blocking the outflow and creating cave lakes. Water bypasses the blockages via fractures oriented in various directions, resulting in multiple bifurcations and the formation of new feeders and maze patterns of caves. Hotspots of speleogenesis are at places of whirling, where H2S is intensively released from water emerging from fractures. This has important consequences for our understanding of speleogenetic processes and organism migration routes in SAS karst.
The Giant Geode of Pulp & iacute; is a unique mineralogical phenomenon worldwide, remarkable for its large selenite gypsum crystals. Its recent development as a tourist site and inclusion on UNESCO's Tentative World Heritage List, highlight the need to assess the impact of visits on its conservation. This study investigates airborne particle dynamics inside the Geode, focusing on tourist activity and natural ventilation. We measured deposition rates and composition of airborne particles using passive traps and a continuous laser-optical particle counter. Microenvironmental variables linked to ventilation, such as temperature and radon gas concentration (& sup2;& sup2;& sup2;Rn), were simultaneously monitored. Results show a predominance of fine particles (<5 >mu m), which remain suspended longer and penetrate deeper into the cavity. Coarse particles (>5 mu m) settle quickly, mainly near the Geode entrance. Chemically, most particles correspond to autochthonous mine minerals (celestine, siderite, quartz, and gypsum), though allochthonous materials such as non-mineral fibers introduced by visitors were also identified. Natural ventilation strongly influences particle behavior. Fine particle concentrations (<5 >mu m) rise (i.e., up 30 & times;10(3) particles/L) when the renewal of air with the exterior, characterized by lower suspended particle concentrations, is restricted. Under these conditions, the particle remobilization induced by visitors causes a higher accumulative effect of fine particles in the mine-Geode atmosphere. Autochthonous mining debris and dust is the main source of coarse particles, with concentrations peaking during visiting hours due to resuspension by tourist movement, up to 2,000 particles/Lfor 5-10 mm particles and up to 400 particles/L for >10 mm. These findings provide a foundation for preventive conservation strategies. Adapting visitor pathways and access protocols could reduce particle resuspension and deposition, helping preserve the exceptional crystals of the Geode of Pulp & iacute; for future generations.
The Cigal & egrave;re Cave is a 21 km-long karstic cave located in the Ari & egrave;ge Department, in the French Pyrenees, and underlies directly the Bentaillou Pb-Zn-Fe sulfide ores. The cave hosts abundant gypsum mineralizations, some of them exhibiting various colorations including blue, yellow, purple, orange and black. Due to strict preservation policies, these colored mineralizations have not been studied much. Here we propose a non-destructive characterization of five distinct gypsum or carbonate speleothem structures from the Cigal & egrave;re, exhibiting different colorations. To comply with the preservation policies, no sample was taken from the cave, and all speleothems were analyzed in situ using portable X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF), with two custom-made calibrations respectively adapted to carbonate and sulfate speleothems. The "Cascade Noire" is suggested to be colored black and orange by coatings composed respectively of hematite/goethite and jarosite. The "Chapelle de Donnea" speleothems are likely colored black by different Mn oxides (likely birnessite) covered by a thin gypsum or calcite layer. The cores of gypsum speleothems are colored blue by Cu2+ substitution, which may be influenced by the presence of blue Znbearing phases. Yellow carbonate speleothems from the "Gino affluent" may be colored by the presence of humic substances, which could not be detected by pXRF. Field observations and comparison of the speleothems' composition with ores from the overlying Bentaillou mine suggest that all the metallic elements and sulfate ions originate from the weathering of sulfide ores by groundwater and subsequent transportation through joints and fractures. This work also shows the capabilities and limitations of pXRF analysis and its potential application in other preserved caves.
This 2025 update lists 54 newly identified minerals from cave environments, expanding the global total to 364 species. The majority of these discoveries have been made in volcanic caves and lava tubes, with a smaller number found in ice-hosted caves. The newly identified minerals belong to seven chemical classes, with sulfates being the most prominent. Recent advancements in analytical techniques and growing interest in unique cave environments have driven these discoveries. This update highlights the importance of cave mineralogy in understanding geological and astrobiological processes, particularly in the search for biosignatures and terrestrial analogues for subsurface settings on Mars and the Moon. The cave minerals of the world list provide a comprehensive reference for researchers, following international mineralogical guidelines and standardized nomenclature.
All folia demonstrate a few common elements: folia (singular, folium) are planar or sub-planar speleothems, slanting downward and away from cave walls and ceilings, and genetically associated with fluctuating environmental interfaces. They were first identified and named from examples in western USA hypogenic caves but have since been identified elsewhere in the world. Folia shelves are typically composed of calcite and interweave smoothly along sub-horizontal contours. Calcite accretion, both chemical and mechanical from suspended particles, follows water-surface fluctuations to form protrusions in arrays along walls and ceilings where new accretion tends to follow the water-surface downward during descending phases, gradually developing into slanted ridges with slopes <~45º. Some workers limit the term to calcite forms, but we recognize six folia types according to the controlling interface: 1.) Common calcite folia form at the interface of calcite-supersaturated water and air and are here referred to as “interweaving calcite folia”; 2.) “Hells Bells” form at the interface of a saltwater/sulfidic-freshwater halocline/redoxcline; 3.) Sulfur folia form at the interface of hydrogen-sulfide-enriched air and oxygenated air; 4.) Mud folia form at the interface of muddy water and air and may include cavity collars outlining bubble pockets; 5.) Halite folia form at the interface of saltwater and air; and 6.) Lava folia form at the interface of molten lava and volcanic gas. Two additional features have been proposed as possible folia but are rejected as folia types in this paper. The first is a non-speleothem “flange” feature formed by fluid venting into oceanic or saline-lake waters. The second is a rare speleothem called “cave leaves” that apparently form on the ceilings of drowned passages where glacial melt infiltrates and mixes with the cave-stream water.
Near Snail Shell Cave in central Tennessee, USA, seven image interpreters independently mapped lineaments using a 3DEP LiDAR DTM, revealing geomorphic and structural differences in and near different parts of the cave. MANOVA comparison of lineament and cave passage trend for Western, Central, and Eastern Snail Shell caves reveals statistically significant differences (p <0.05). The Western cave (mean depth 44 m) is in the gently-dipping limb of the Snail Shell anticline, and the Central cave (mean depth 31 m) is in the anticline hinge. In contrast, many Eastern cave passages (mean depth 40 m) cut across the anticline hinge and part of the limb of the Overall syncline. For both the Western and Central caves, a post-hoc Tukey's HSD test fails to show that lineament trend within 235 m of the cave differs significantly from passage trend, and the test fails to show that the two differ significantly within 235 and 433 m of the Eastern cave. Additional statistical testing fails to show a difference between Western passage trend and bed strike, indicating the likelihood that lineaments and passages developed within strike-joints. However, testing shows a statistically significant difference between passage trend and bed strike for the Central and Eastern caves. The strike of joints inside the Eastern cave shows that it is within a joint zone which penetrates to depths of at least 80 m and is expressed at the surface as an similar to 4.2 km-long belt of elevated lineament line density. The lack of a statistically significant difference between Eastern passage trend and the trend of a nearby topographic escarpment suggests that many joints are stress release fractures formed during relatively recent erosion. For the Eastern cave, intersections between lineaments and structures would be attractive targets for groundwater exploration at depths typical of wells in carbonates.
Fires occurring in cave guano are a rare and unusual phenomenon and the occurrence of such events in Southeast Asia is particularly novel. In this study, we document the first recorded instance of a bat guano fire in a tropical cave at Tham Chao Ram in Sukhothai province, northern Thailand. A bacteriological analysis was made of the guano at the fire site and from a control site within the cave. We give a comprehensive review of global reports on bat guano fires in caves, conduct an initial investigation of the physical parameters at the fire site and discuss the potential causes of such fires. Additionally, we discuss the implications for guano cave management and decision-making in relation to cave guano fires. This report emphasizes the need for further research into the conditions that lead to guano fires, their ecological impacts, and the development of effective management strategies to prevent or mitigate such incidents in cave environments.
We redefine the extent of former glaciers in the northern Jura Mountains through the study of endo-karst deposits. Sedimentary deposits (pebbly debris flows, laminated clays, and allochthonous limestone blocks) and chemical deposits (speleothems) were identified and studied using three complementary approaches: (i) detailed geomorphological mapping, (ii) petrographic analysis, and (iii) U/Th-dating. In addition, a surface geomorphological analysis made it possible to calculate the minimum erosion time required for the formation of the sinkhole linked to the underground study site. The study site is the Dolois Chamber, an underground site upstream of the Verneau karst network (Doubs Department, France). The combined results aided in reconstructing the chronology of the various events affecting the study site, including 1) formation of the Baume-des-Cr & ecirc;tes paleo-sinkhole a few hundred thousand years (during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 8); 2) invasion by a pebbly debris flow, probably linked to a mid-Pleistocene glacial periods (MIS 8 or 6); 3) hydrological dysfunction, including significant flooding and deposition of laminated clays; 4) capture of the paleosinkhole by the Biefs-Bousset active sinkhole approximately 10 kyr (MIS 2); and 5) a recent return to water level variations of approximately 10 m during flooding. Furthermore, our results show that the extent of the ice cap in the Jura Mountains during the mid-Pleistocene (MIS 8-6) probably did not reach beyond the topographic high of the Salinois Fault Zone at the plateau margin.
This study presents the results of a long-term investigation of the microclimatic conditions in Shulgan-Tash Cave (Southern Urals, Russia), which hosts the largest assemblage of Upper Paleolithic paintings (ca. 16.3-19.6 ka) in Eastern Europe. The cave exhibits two distinct seasonal ventilation regimes-winter and summer-differentially influence its two levels of galleries. In the Lower Level, which contains 83% of the images, near-atmospheric CO2 concentrations persist year-round, and temperature variations associated with seasonal infiltration events are minimal (1.0-1.3 degrees C). By contrast, the Upper Level, including the decorated Hall of Paintings, is affected by downdrafts of CO2-rich air during summer, resulting in elevated concentrations (up to 0.2-0.3% vol.). These conditions reflect the position of this sector beneath a densely forested massif and the degassing of phreatic waters. The principal threats to the preservation of the cave art include: (i) summer condensation, mitigated by the use of air-circulation screens; (ii) cyclic CO2 fluctuations, which drive alternating dissolution and degassing in water films on decorated walls; and (iii) rapid degassing of infiltrating waters, leading to calcite deposition over the paintings. These processes variably affect the decorated chambers, highlighting the need for site-specific conservation measures. Given the cave's recent inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List, these findings provide an essential basis for developing effective long-term preservation strategies for this unique cultural heritage site.
Exposure to radon and its progeny poses a significant health risk for workers in tourist caves. Implementing protective measures is challenging due to increasingly strict gas concentration and dose limits in new regulations. This study evaluates the annual effective radiation doses received by workers and researchers, considering seasonal and spatial radon variability. Radon levels, temperature, and ventilation patterns were continuously monitored for at least one year in each cave. Results show significant radon fluctuations influenced by seasonal ventilation regimes driven by thermal gradients between the cave and external atmosphere. Using International Commission on Radiological Protection guidelines, the study calculates the maximum allowable working hours to comply with European and Spanish regulations, which set an annual dose limit of 20 mSv for occupational exposure. Findings emphasize the necessity of continuous radon monitoring and tailored management strategies, such as adjusting work schedules and restricting access during high-radon periods. Additionally, the study highlights the limitations of passive radon detectors, which tend to underestimate actual radon levels compared to continuous monitoring. This research provides a protocol for managing radon exposure in culturally significant caves while ensuring worker and visitor safety. The methodology includes initial spatial dosimetry, continuous monitoring, and safe working hour recommendations based on monthly radon levels. Monitoring should also consider parameters like temperature, humidity, and CO2 to understand ventilation dynamics. These measures are essential for compliance with radioprotection standards while preserving the integrity of these unique cultural and historical sites.
Stalagmites are invaluable archivers of past climate conditions, as their oxygen isotopic composition (518Oc) closely mirrors the isotopic signature of the drip water (518Ow) from which they precipitate. This isotopic relationship is governed by the fractionation factor (1000ln18 alpha), which is temperature dependent. In this research, we studied 1000ln18 alpha within Cueva Ensue & ntilde;o, a cave situated in Puerto Rico's northern karst region, as a step toward calibrating 518Oc for paleoclimate interpretations using stalagmites. We collected drip waters, measured their temperature in situ, and sampled carbonates from ten selected stations within the cave. Sampling was conducted in December and May, representing months of the dry and wet seasons, respectively. To better understand isotopic variations in stalagmites, we farmed calcite at the same drip sampling locations during both seasons. Our findings reveal a seasonal bias in isotopic fractionation of farmed carbonates at Cueva Ensue & ntilde;o, with higher 1000ln18 alpha values in May (30.7-32.7) and lower values in December (27.8-29.7), but when these values are averaged, they merge towards the isotopic fractionation of the shaved stalagmites. We also found that stable isotope transfer into the cave is delayed, which could be due to epikarst storage effect and piston flow recharge, with the May drip water likely affected by moisture recycling before reaching the cave (as shown by the high d-excess values). In contrast to stable isotopes, the drip elemental composition suggests an immediate prior calcite precipitation response, which could be evidence of a dual transfer process. This research illuminates our understanding of oxygen isotope fractionation, which is useful for paleoclimate reconstructions and can provide insights into similar settings in the region.
Despite increasing research on the Neotropical underground environment, anurans remain poorly understood in this habitat. It was analyzed scientific literature records of anurans in Brazilian natural caves and performed a redundancy analysis (RDA) to identify the environmental, taxonomic, geographic, geological and land-use variables that influence their cave occupancy. It was examined a total of 247 literature records, encompassing 83 species/morphospecies, which revealed distinct cave-dwelling tendencies. Some anuran species occupy caves at altitudes between 5 to 21 meters above sea level (m asl), in areas characterized by rocky outcrops and grassland. Others are associated with caves surrounded by forest, savanna, pasture or mosaic of agriculture and pasture. A third group is linked to caves with varying lithologies. These findings highlight specific ecological scenarios foranuran occurrence in Neotropical caves. Conserving cave-dwelling anurans in the Neotropical region depends on understanding the factors influencing their subterranean occupancy. Preserving native vegetation and maintaining undisturbed landscapes are essential. This will safeguard these sensitive species and reinforce their role as bioindicators of ecological impacts in cave environments.
