Introduction: Black Americans experience racial discrimination, which has been related to increased mental health problems and sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbances are also a symptom, and a predictor, of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The current longitudinal study examined the role of sleep disturbances in the relationship between racial discrimination and PTSD symptoms in a trauma sample of Black adults in the United States. Methods: Black trauma survivors (N = 84; 49 women; M age = 34.74) reported their lifetime experiences of racial discrimination, sleep disturbances (3 months post-trauma), and PTSD symptoms (clinically assessed 6 months post-trauma). Bivariate correlations examined the associations between the variables, and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) investigated differences in PTSD symptoms across reported levels of sleep disturbances. Lastly, a mediation model evaluated the role of sleep disturbances on the relationship between racial discrimination and PTSD. Results: Racial discrimination was associated with increased sleep disturbances and PTSD symptoms. Participants with more severe sleep disturbances showed higher PTSD symptoms when compared to those with no or minimal sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbances significantly mediated the effect of racial discrimination on PTSD symptoms 6 months post-trauma (B = 0.125, CI [0.033, 0.250], SE = 0.056), covarying for gender and lifetime trauma exposure. Discussion: Increased racial discrimination is linked to PTSD symptoms in the current study, via sleep disturbances. Findings emphasize that racial discrimination is related to sleep disturbances in Black adults, which, in turn, is associated with PTSD symptoms 6 months post-trauma. Effective interventions targeting sleep disruptions may improve PTSD symptoms for this population.
Introduction: Judgment worry is the proximal appraisal of whether a social evaluation has occurred. Although judgment worry is context-sensitive, there is gap in research examining how momentary shifts in daily experiences are associated with variations in judgment worry. Methods: This study examined whether judgment worry functions as a dynamic state with moment-to-moment variations influenced by social context. These processes were tested among first-generation college students who often face unique academic, cultural, and socioeconomic pressures that may heighten the salience of judgment worry. First-generation college students completed ecological momentary assessments four times a day across 14 days (N = 172; k = 6,352), reporting on momentary judgment worry and aspects of their social environment (e.g., belongingness, loneliness, pleasantness, and connectedness). Results: Multilevel models revealed a substantial amount of the variance in judgment worry (49.7%) occurs within-person. Participants reported that in the moments they experienced greater belongingness, more pleasant social interactions, or greater connectedness with social partners, these were also the moments when they experienced less judgment worry. In contrast, in moments they experienced greater loneliness, they reported more judgment worry. Discussion: Results demonstrate judgment worry as contextually responsive and dynamic, rather than purely trait-like, with changes in social context predictive of this social-evaluative processing sequence. These findings suggest the potential to curate protective contexts for improving the lives and wellbeing of first-generation college students in meaningful ways.
A strong therapeutic relationship is frequently characterized by emotional intimacy between the client and therapist and enhances client outcomes. Emotional control -- the tendency to suppress or avoid the expression of emotions-may affect the development of a strong therapeutic alliance. This study examined how emotional control influences the process of developing intimacy and resulting interpersonal connection in a therapy analog among young adults in the United States. Method: University students (N = 83; Mage= 19.88; SDage = 3.37) completed a measure of emotional control and participated in a therapy analog with a research assistant. Participants rated their interpersonal connection with the research assistant at pre- and post-test. Results: Emotional control moderated changes in connection; stronger tendencies toward emotional control were associated with greater changes in feeling connection with the research assistant. Discussion: Emotionally validating therapeutic interactions may be helpful for individuals who attempt to avoid expression of emotions.
Introduction: Problematic smartphone use (PSU) has been linked to impaired cognitive functioning, yet evidence for objective deficits remains inconsistent, and the mechanisms underlying subjective complaints are unclear. This study examined whether PSU in young adults is associated with reduced cognitive efficiency and whether objective test results align with self-reported functioning. Relationships between PSU and cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics were also explored. Methods: The cross-sectional mixed-method study included 326 university students. Phase 1 involved questionnaires assessing cognitive failures, stress, anxiety, mood, sleep, and everyday task engagement (flow), as well as smartphone use patterns and self-regulation strategies. In Phase 2, a subset of 50 low- and high-risk PSU participants completed interviews and cognitive tests measuring attention, working memory, set-shifting, inhibition, and multitasking. Results: Higher PSU was associated with more frequent cognitive complaints, emotional distress, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and lower engagement, but not with objectively measured cognitive deficits. Only multitasking errors were more frequent in the high-risk group. High-PSU participants reported weaker self-regulation, greater distractibility, and maladaptive social media use. Discussion: Higher PSU risk was associated primarily with motivational and emotional difficulties rather than with objective cognitive decline. Future research on PSU should account for individual characteristics and social influences.
Introduction: This study aimed to examine temporal sequences between schema modes, particularly the Vulnerable Child and Healthy Adult modes, and to examine whether varying levels of pathology, namely anxiety or depression, would moderate this association. Methods: Using experience sampling methodology, 115 university students completed momentary assessments four times daily across two 14-day periods. The Momentary Schema Modes Questionnaire measured mode activation, whereas GAD-7 and PHQ-9 assessed symptom levels. Results: Contrary to schema therapy predictions, no significant association emerged between lagged Vulnerable Child and subsequent Healthy Adult mode activation, nor did anxiety or depression moderate this relationship. However, exploratory analyses revealed significant positive correlations between Vulnerable Child mode and both anxiety (r = .23) or depression (r = .27) symptoms. Additionally, maladaptive modes including Critical Parent, Detached Protector, and Detached Self-Soother showed significant associations with symptom measures. Post-hoc analyses identified a significant temporal sequence from Vulnerable Child to Critical Parent mode activation, consistent with maladaptive patterns described in schema therapy. Discussion: The absence of the theorized adaptive sequence may reflect measurement limitations, as the 3.8-hour intervals between assessments may have been too wide to capture rapid mode transitions. These findings provide partial empirical support for schema therapy concepts while highlighting methodological considerations for future mode sequence research.
Introduction: Parents' beliefs and attitudes influence their motivation to engage in treatment for child mental health problems. However, few studies have examined how parental cognitions relate to treatment attitudes, particularly toward parent management training (PMT) for externalizing problems in clinical samples. This study investigated how beliefs about the possibility of change and perceived need for change relate to attitudes toward medication, psychotherapy, and PMT. We also explored which factors best predict treatment acceptability. Methods: Participants were 94 parents of children aged 3-12 years referred to a tertiary mental health centre. They completed validated measures assessing mindsets, failure beliefs, attributions, parenting practices, child symptom severity, readiness for change, and treatment attitudes. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted. Results: Regarding beliefs about the possibility of change, parental mindsets, failure beliefs, and attributions were significantly interrelated. Regarding beliefs about the perceived need for change, child problem severity was associated with greater readiness for change, while parenting practices were linked to mindset and attributions instead. Additionally, parent readiness for change uniquely predicted acceptability of PMT and was negatively associated with acceptability of medication, which was more strongly predicted by child symptom severity. Mindset about emotions uniquely predicted acceptability of child psychotherapy. Discussion: Clinicians should consider parental cognitions when working with families who are considering treatment options for child mental health. In particular, screening for mindset beliefs (about the possibility for change in child emotions) and parent readiness for change (including severity of child symptoms) can be helpful to match families to preferred interventions.
Introduction: Gratitude to nature is an emerging topic of interest in psychology, particularly in terms of benefits for sustainability. However, little research has examined the implications of gratitude to nature for well-being. Because gratitude to nature may fuse the well-being benefits of gratitude and nature connectedness, we hypothesized that trait nature gratitude should predict greater hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, above and beyond relations with general gratitude. We also aimed to replicate past findings that greater nature gratitude predicts greater pro-environmental outcomes. However, we also hypothesized that it may predict greater climate anxiety due to increased worry about the effects of climate change on the natural world. Method: Study 1 (N = 173) measured self-reported gratitude to nature, self-transcendent emotions, self-nature representations, pro-environmental behavior, subjective well-being, and climate anxiety. Study 2 (N = 289) included the same measures (except for subjective well-being) and added a measure of stress, general anxiety, and depression. Study 3 (N = 267) added measures of general trait gratitude and eudaimonic well-being. Results: Across the three studies, we found that greater gratitude to nature was associated with subjective well-being, eudaimonic well-being, more self-transcendent emotions, more sustainable self-nature representations, and greater pro-environmental behavioral intentions, but also greater climate anxiety. Study 3 found that these relations occurred even when controlling for general trait gratitude. Discussion: The current work establishes links between gratitude to nature, the self-concept, sustainability, and well-being, while identifying a novel point of caution regarding climate anxiety that should be considered when developing nature gratitude interventions.
Introduction: In two studies, we examined the benefits of romantic nostalgia, a sentimental longing for treasured moments in a romantic relationship. Methods: Study 1 participants reported their romantic nostalgia, relationship satisfaction, positive affect, and affective attraction toward their partner. Study 2 participants recalled and wrote about a nostalgic or ordinary event in their romantic relationships and reported their relationship satisfaction, positive affect, and affective attraction. Results: Romantic nostalgia was positively linked to outcomes in both the correlational (Study 1) and experimental (Study 2) studies. Discussion: Our research supports that romantic nostalgia is a positive experience that, whether occurring naturally or induced as an intervention, benefits individuals in their romantic relationships.
Introduction: Previous research investigated the interplay between impairments in personality functioning and perceived negative interactions with parents. Those studies mostly utilized cross-sectional methodologies in community samples. This study aimed to clarify the direction of associations between impaired personality functioning (i.e., difficulties in identity formation and less capacity of empathy and intimacy) and perceived negative interactions with parents (e.g., conflicts with parents) in treatment-referred youth. Methods: The sample consisted of 285 youth (79.3% self-identified women; Mage = 19.1, SD = 2.58, range = 12-23 years) who completed questionnaires at three measurement points within one year. Data were analyzed with a Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model. Results: Results showed that impaired personality functioning is correlated with perceived negative interactions. However, an absence of reciprocal relationships between impaired personality functioning and perceived negative interactions with parents over time is found. Youth's impaired personality functioning is not related to youth's perceived negative interactions with parents 6 months later. Also, youth's negative interactions with parents are not associated with the personality functioning 6 months later. Discussion: Future research is needed to play a role in the development of personality functioning.
Introduction: We explored the challenges associated with maintaining recovery from an eating disorder (ED) and the factors that contribute to these difficulties. Specifically, we investigated whether a sense of self-discontinuity or self- continuity with one's former ED self influences intentions to remain in recovery, and whether nostalgia for the perceived benefits of the ED mediates this relation. Methods: Among 189 people in recovery from an ED, self-continuity (vs. self-discontinuity) was primed and then nostalgic reverie for the benefits of the ED and intentions to remain on the recovery path were assessed. Results: Participants who were primed to feel that recovery maintains self-continuity (vs. creates self-discontinuity) reported greater nostalgia for the benefits they received from engaging in disordered eating (d = .40) and lower intentions to remain in recovery (d = -.23), but the difference for recovery intentions was not statistically significant. Critically, participants primed with self-continuity (vs. self-discontinuity) indirectly reported lower recovery intentions via greater nostalgia for the benefits they received from engaging in disordered eating. Discussion: Although most treatment modalities focus people living with an ED on a better possible future (i.e., one where the ED is absent), the results of the current research suggest that framing recovery as disconnecting the person from who they were during their ED may facilitate the recovery process.
Introduction: The link between social support and psychological adjustment can be complex, and supportive behaviors between partners may, at times, become maladaptive and negatively impact each partner's mental health. Utilizing a dyadic approach, this study examined the effect of social support behaviors on depression symptoms in couples. Methods: Romantic couples (N = 123) recruited from southern United States completed a survey assessing depressive symptoms. Observational support interactions were conducted to measure partners' positive and negative affective support behaviors. Structural equation modeling and actorpartner interdependence models (APIM) were used to estimate effects. Results: Results highlight the unfavorable effects of negative social support behaviors on individuals' own and their partner's depression symptoms. Additionally, high levels of negative support from one's partner can amplify the influence of negative support on one's own depression symptoms. Positive support behaviors produced no significant predictors of depression symptoms. Discussion: The association between social support behaviors and depression symptoms in couples is beyond individual level; it can be a dependency of both individuals. Future research should continue to examine the complex relationship between social support and psychological adjustment.
Introduction: This longitudinal study examined psychological processes drawn from different theoretical frameworks, specifically anger suppression, self-blame, and basic psychological needs (BPN) frustration in relation to depressive symptoms, with focus on their temporal ordering and directional associations over time. Methods: N = 344 participants completed an online survey at three time points, each 2 months apart. Results: At the within-person level, dynamic interrelations emerged: heightened anger suppression was followed by lower subsequent BPN frustration; greater frustration was subsequently linked to decreases in suppression; and elevated depressive symptoms temporally preceded increases in suppression. The model also showed positive autoregressive effects for need frustration, indicating that elevated frustration tended to persist over time. At the between-person level, individuals who chronically suppressed anger reported higher self-blame, BPN frustration, and depressive symptoms, forming a stable maladaptive profile in which BPN frustration linked both anger suppression and self-blame with depressive symptoms. Discussion: BPN frustration appears to be a key time-persistent process linking anger suppression and self-blame with depressive symptoms, integrating both momentary regulatory dynamics and more enduring vulnerabilities. These findings highlight the potential value of interventions aimed at buffering against need frustration as a transdiagnostic strategy for the prevention of depressive symptoms.
Introduction: Co-rumination can significantly affect well-being yet remains understudied in adult romantic relationships. We aimed to examine how co-rumination in adult couples impacts two forms of emotional distress (anxiety and depression) and relationship satisfaction over a 15-20 week follow-up. We also investigated whether effects persisted when controlling important covariates (e.g., emotional stability) and explored gender differences. Methods: Longitudinal path analyses were used to analyze data from 960 romantic couples (Mage= 38.3, SD = 6.77 years) recruited through Qualtrics Survey Panels and homeschooling groups. Couples completed two survey waves during Winter/Spring 2021. Each partner completed measures of co-rumination at baseline, and of depression, anxiety, relationship satisfaction, and emotional stability at baseline and follow-up. Results: Dyadic co-rumination predicted significant increases in both emotional distress measures, but not relationship satisfaction, at follow-up when controlling baseline levels. Effects persisted when controlling covariates. While co-rumination predicted significant increases in depression in women but not men, formal tests of gender moderation were non-significant. No evidence of gender differences was found for co-rumination predicting anxiety or relationship satisfaction. Discussion: Results suggest couples should be counseled to limit co-ruminative discussions to minimize emotional distress. Reducing adult couples' co-rumination is unlikely to lessen relationship satisfaction.
Introduction: The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide (ITS) posits that suicidal ideation emerges when an individual feels an intractable hopelessness around the perception they are a burden to others and feels as though they are not connected with others. The Interpersonal Hopelessness Scale (IHS) was developed to assess these constructs of the ITS. To better understand how groups experience interpersonal hopelessness, this study sought to extend prior psychometric evaluations of the IHS. First, this study sought to identify the best-fit factor structure of the IHS. Once established, measurement invariance was conducted across gender (cisgender men and women) and race (non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White participants). Measurement invariant groups were compared to evaluate whether IHS ratings differed. Method: This investigation evaluated the psychometrics of the IHS among 1,881 college students. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to evaluate the factor structure of the IHS. Once established, multigroup CFAs were conducted comparing groups. Latent group mean differences were compared between measurement invariant subgroups. Additional tests of reliability and validity were conducted. Results: Results supported measurement invariance of a two-factor model by race and gender. No differences between latent group means were found. Additionally, the IHS was found to have strong internal consistency, good concurrent validity and was predictive of future suicidal ideation even when accounting for related constructs. Discussion: The IHS is a psychometrically sound tool which assesses interpersonal hopelessness. Moreover, measurement invariance results indicate the IHS may be a viable tool to evaluate these constructs among select demographic groups.
Introduction: Social connections are vital to human wellbeing, yet interactions often entail misunderstandings and disappointments. When ostracized, people react with strong emotional pain. In this experiment, we investigated whether principles derived from psychotherapy and/or the presence of a friend could mitigate negative reflexive and reflective reactions to ostracism induced using the Cyberball experiment. We tested how participants responded emotionally and their downstream behavioral choices, focusing on selfish and prosocial offers in the Dictator Game. Methods: Participants came to the testing session accompanied by a friend (n = 100) or alone (n = 96) and were randomized to receive a brief psychological flexibility micro-intervention or a control task before playing Cyberball with either one confederate (i.e., friend-condition) or two confederates (i.e., stranger-condition). Results: The Cyberball game resulted in an increase in negative and a decrease in positive affect. Participants who received the intervention showed stronger negative affect reactions than participants in the control condition. The presence of a friend did not alter the reflexive emotional reaction. However, the presence of a friend, but not the intervention, led to significantly more prosocial behavior and less selfish behavior. The interaction of friends- condition and intervention reduced reflective "revenge" behavior following ostracism in the Dictator Game. Discussion: The results demonstrate different reflexive and reflective responses. These findings suggest that the strength of having a friend present was stronger than that of the intervention. Implications are discussed in light of evolutionary, social, and clinical theories.
Introduction: Women and girls who engage in more body talk, or discussion about body image and weight, suffer from more body image issues. Limited research, however, has focused on an observational method of body talk. This study compared the relative association of self-report versus laboratory-observed body talk on body image variables (body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, cognitive distortions, and restrained eating). Method: A sample of 60 young adult women friend dyads were recruited from a local college. The hypotheses that involved dyadic data were examined with multilevel models (MLM). Body mass index (BMI) was included as a covariate. Results: Self-report body talk was significantly associated with higher body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and cognitive distortions, above and beyond observed body talk. Also, observed body talk was significantly associated with higher drive for thinness, cognitive distortions, and restrained eating, above and beyond self-report body talk. Discussion: Our findings underscore the importance of incorporating both self-report and observational methods when assessing body talk. This dual approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon and its association with various facets of body image. Understanding the dynamics of body talk and body image through both self-report and observational methods can inform interventions.
Introduction: Young adults are often faced with pressures of major life transitions, which may exacerbate the risk of developing depression, and depression features self-devaluation and distorts the perception of social praise. Methods: In this study we manipulated the specificity of social praise to investigate how it would interact with depressive symptoms and thus modulate the emotional and cognitive processing of the feedback in young adults. We engaged young adults with and without depressive symptoms in reading self-referential praise of specific and general content and asked them to rate how pleased they were by the praise and how truly the praise described their attributes. We also measured participants' mood, self-esteem, social anxiety, and general anxiety. Results: Depressed participants perceived specific praise as more truly describing their attributes than general praise, showing no differences from healthy controls in truthfulness ratings for specific praise while they rated general praise as less pleasant and truthful than control participants. Higher self-esteem and more positive mood were associated with higher truthfulness of praise. Discussion: These findings suggest that specific content of praise may facilitate cognitive reappraisal in young adults with depressive symptoms, thereby highlighting the importance of tailoring praise strategies in psychological interventions for young adults with depressive symptoms.
Introduction: Being an intense blamer is bad for one's relationships and for one's mental health. Although existing literature provides strong support for these harmful impacts of blame, the relevant studies examine a narrow set of relationship types and a narrow type of blame. Our goal in this article is to extend the blame literature by examining the relational and mental health harms of blame in novel relationship settings (peer relations among emerging adults) and with respect to novel blame-eliciting events (everyday transgressions). Method: In Study 1, we collected survey responses from sorority sisters at the beginning of a semester (T1) and again several weeks later (T2). Results: We found that sisters who were intense blamers of peers at T1 were significantly less well-liked and less mentally healthy at T2 than would be expected based on their T1 likability and mental health. These detrimental impacts of blame were particularly strong among sisters whose blame did not co-occur with any compassion for peer transgressors. Method: In Study 2, we took an experimental approach. College roommates attended a Wise Blame Workshop (or not). Results: We found that the workshop improved several different blame-related beliefs and practices and that these improvements mediated beneficial impacts of the workshop on relationship quality and mental health. Discussion: Our findings underscore the importance of what we call "wise blame," and they widen the scope within which one should expect to find detrimental impacts of blame on relationships and on mental health. Finally, our results suggest that blame-related interventions might be helpful for ameliorating the epidemics of social disconnection and mental illness that are plaguing teens and emerging adults.
Introduction: This study examined the relationship between time spent on social networking sites and specific depressive symptoms, addressing a gap in prior research that has primarily centered on problematic use (PSMU) rather than timebased engagement. Method: A symptom-level network approach was used with cross-sectional data from 1,018 university students in Poland (M-age = 21.64; 75.4% women), who completed the PHQ-9 and a single-item measure of average daily time spent on social media. Results: All simple correlations between social media use and depressive symptoms were positive but small (r = .10 - .23). The network analysis showed that time spent on social media was most strongly associated with concentration difficulties, followed by insomnia, fatigue, and psychomotor agitation, whereas affective symptoms such as sadness and anhedonia showed no or minimal direct associations. Overall, social media use was more strongly linked to impairments in functional-cognitive processes than to emotional disturbances. Moreover, it was connected primarily to depressive symptoms located at the periphery of the network, suggesting that time-based engagement is linked to less central-but functionally relevant-aspects of depression. Discussion: These to depression at the symptom level. By identifying concentration difficulties, sleeprelated problems, and psychomotor symptoms as key links of intensive use, the study lays an important foundation for future longitudinal or experimental studies.
Introduction: Although self-disgust, the profound revulsion at one's own character or actions, is implicated in eating disorders, available studies are based largely on self-report questionnaires. Accordingly, this study examines whether experimentally induced self-disgust alters body image perception and satisfaction. Participants high in eating disorder symptoms (N = 89) provided ratings of current levels of disgust, sadness, fear, and happiness. They then completed a body image rating task that assessed body perception and satisfaction. Methods: Participants were then randomized to a self-disgust or positive affect narrative mood induction condition, after which they again provided affect ratings and completed the body image rating task. Results: As predicted, the self-disgust induction increased disgust but also sadness and fear, whereas the positive affect induction increased happiness. Although changes within each group in body perception were not statistically significant, the significant interaction suggests that the two conditions show a differential pattern of change in opposite directions that is consistent with predictions. Those in the self-disgust induction also reported significantly lower body satisfaction after the induction compared to those in the positive affect condition. Furthermore, the increase in only disgust after the narrative induction mediated the group differences in body dissatisfaction. Discussion: These findings suggest that experiencing self-disgust may alter body image satisfaction, and the implications for etiological models of eating disorders are discussed.
