Smoke movement and accumulation during building fires remain a dominant life-safety threat, as tragically demonstrated by recent large-scale incidents such as the 2025 Kartalkaya hotel fire. Beyond obstructing visibility, smoke rapidly degrades breathable air quality, directly constraining evacuation and firefighting effectiveness. To mitigate these risks, smoke management and smoke control systems implemented through natural, mechanical and hybrid ventilation configurations are widely employed to regulate smoke stratification and preserve tenable conditions. This review provides a comprehensive and critical synthesis of smoke ventilation systems, examining their classification, design principles and operational performance across diverse building typologies. International regulatory frameworks, including EN 12101, NFPA 92 and ISO 21927, are analysed alongside performance-based design methodologies, advanced modelling tools and emerging control strategies such as artificial intelligence, sensor-driven automation and digital twins. Particular attention is given to the interaction between ventilation performance, evacuation dynamics and system resilience under variable environmental and operational conditions. Unlike conventional reviews that primarily catalogue technologies or standards, this study reframes smoke ventilation as a governing life-safety system that directly defines Available Safe Egress Time through its coupling with pressure zoning, smoke stratification stability and adaptive control logic. By positioning smoke ventilation at the core of performance-based fire safety design, the review clarifies application boundaries, identifies scenario-dependent optimisation challenges and highlights pathways for integrating intelligent control within regulatory-compliant frameworks. The findings support a shift from prescriptive system selection towards context-specific performance optimisation, providing actionable insights for researchers, engineers and policymakers engaged in the development of resilient and adaptive smoke ventilation strategies.
This study investigates the venting behavior of compressed natural gas from passenger vehicle fuel tanks through temperature-triggered pressure relief devices at full capacity (200 bar). Experimentally measured mass loss rates were calculated to provide gas source boundary conditions for compressed natural gas dispersion modeling and to support evaluation of methods for predicting gas flow from pressurized systems in accidental releases. Using air as a venting gas, near-field flow patterns were qualitatively analyzed, revealing four characteristic regimes: (1) air entrainment from behind the vehicle, (2) left rear wheel recirculation, (3) forward-directed flow under the car, and (4) right rear wheel free jet. These regimes were confirmed in a full-scale vehicle fire test, demonstrating the relevance of the observed flow patterns for real fire scenarios and providing an experimentally supported framework for hazard assessment and risk evaluation of accidental compressed natural gas release.
This study examines fire incidents attended by Merseyside Fire and Rescue Service during the Bonfire Night period, 5th November (2015-2024), analysing the circumstances, patterns, and trends of such incidents. In particular, anti-social behaviour fires, deliberate property fires, firework incidents, and violence at work incidents were examined. Anti-social behaviour fires declined from 2016, firework incidents from 2019, and violence at work incidents from 2018, but all subsequently increased in 2024. Deliberate property fires also declined from 2016 onwards. Statistically significant increases occurred on 5th November for firework incidents, 5th and 6th November for anti-social behaviour fires, and 30th October and 5th November for deliberate property fires and violence at work incidents. There was a strong link between the level of deprivation and the number of anti-social behaviour, deliberate property fires, firework incidents, and violence at work incidents over the period studied.
This study addresses the failure risk of carbon fiber reinforced polymer cable anchorage systems during bridge deck tanker fires. Through numerical simulation, the most unfavorable temperature-rise curve was established. Experimental validation assessed the temperature response of the load transfer medium and the protective efficacy of three types of fire-resistant materials. Results indicate that at 2 m/s wind speed, the most hazardous thermal profile occurs 1 m directly above the tanker's roof surface. Epoxy-based load transfer medium presents anchoring failure risks beyond 123 degrees C, with temperature gradient attenuation dependent on material thermal properties. Comparative analysis indicates that the fireproof coating-insulating cement composite system provides superior protection compared with single-layer high-silica needle-punched felt. To ensure the carbon fiber reinforced polymer anchoring system maintains 3-h fire resistance integrity, the minimum protective configuration requires either 300-mm high-silica felt, 75-mm insulating cement, or a 2.38-mm fireproof coating.
Laboratory experiments were conducted on fresh Leylandii cypress leaves and small branches to evaluate fire behavior sensitivity to fuel moisture content and incident heat flux. Cone calorimetry combined with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy provided novel insights into ignition dynamics, heat release, and emissions of water vapor, CO, and CO2. Fire behavior exhibited either a single ignition (leading directly to flaming), typical of higher fuel moisture content and incident heat flux, or an initial global ignition followed by localized ignitions, typical of lower fuel moisture content and incident heat flux. Peak heat release rate per unit mass and effective heat of combustion decreased on average with increasing fuel moisture content. At high fuel moisture content, CO, and water vapor concentrations were elevated before the first ignition and remained high afterward. Water vapor showed small peaks during flaming phases.
This study investigated the fire performance of roofing materials under controlled laboratory conditions, with a focus on the ignition mechanisms of roof decking and their implications for fire testing and material flammability. Mockup roof assemblies, comprising asphalt shingles, underlayment, and wooden decking, were tested at both bench and large scales. Large-scale testing employed a modified version of the ASTM E108 Burning Brand test, the standard used to classify the fire performance of roof coverings. Bench-scale evaluation was conducted using a cone calorimeter equipped with a specialized sample holder adapted from ASTM E3367 and designed to accommodate multilayer assemblies. This configuration (commonly referred to as the Cube test) was intended to replicate fire exposure conditions similar to those in ASTM E108. In both test configurations, flaming beneath the roof decking occurred without any apparent perforation, that is, without the formation of breaks or fissures in the roof assembly. Video analysis of the tests revealed that ignition on the underside of the specimens was initiated by intense smoldering, which eventually transitioned into flaming. This ignition mechanism, known as the smoldering-to-flaming transition, represents a fundamentally different failure mode from burn-through, in which flames penetrate through openings in the structure. This study experimentally demonstrated and mechanistically explained this transition as a possible cause of the long-standing reproducibility issues in ASTM E108. Underside flaming occurred only when airflow increased oxygen supply, with air velocity controlling the transition through competing effects of enhanced char oxidation/pyrolysis and convective cooling. These findings emphasize the need for detailed airflow characterization beneath roofing test assemblies for a reproducible and reliable assessment of roof assemblies.
This article examines fire safety challenges arising from additional physical protection measures at critical infrastructure facilities under modern military threats, drawing on Ukraine’s experience. It shows that reinforced concrete shelters and anti-drone systems significantly alter fire safety conditions in existing buildings. Key risks include restricted firefighting access, compromised evacuation routes, reduced ventilation and lighting, and disruption of engineering systems. Using a representative case study, the research analyzes changes in accessibility, evacuation, and formation of enclosed spaces. Numerical modeling of internal explosions reveals that although catastrophic structural failure is unlikely, increased loads may threaten personnel and systems if not considered in design. The study also highlights difficulties integrating ventilation and other systems within protective structures, noting risks such as humidity, corrosion, and degradation. It concludes that protection measures must be combined with a comprehensive, risk-based approach to ensure fire safety, operational reliability, and resilience throughout the facility life cycle.
The manufacturing of high-temperature environment parts (combustion chambers, turbojet or rocket injectors) with the Laser Power Bed Fusion (LPBF) process is very promising due to the freedom on geometries it provides. In order to gain a better understanding on a realistic flame-wall interactions, 316 L steel plates from LPBF and cast /forged processes were subjected to a reacting flow using robust cross-disciplinary methodology. The physical phenomena (thermal, physico-chemical and mechanical) involved in structural parts (full-scale) subjected to combustion-based burnt gases is studied via the use of a laboratory-scale combustion test rig. The generation of a methane-air flow enables to conduct a comparative analysis to understand the influence of a well-controlled thermal stress (1200 degrees C, 1 h) on the material properties (hardness, residual stresses), depending on the manufacturing process and microstructure evolution during the thermal exposure. Results highlights that the interaction between the flame burnt gases and the material does not affect the microstructure and mechanical behaviour for cast whereas localized recrystallization in the range of 0-10 mu m near the exposed surface and residual stress state modifications are revealed for LPBF. This is the first study on flame-LPBF alloy interactions.
This study investigates fire growth and thermal response in clothing retail stores, focusing on hanger arrangement, product density, and fire load. Full-scale burning tests were conducted in a fire room designed for two experimental setups: A1 (single-row hanger, 20 kg of products) and B1 (linear wall unit with circular free-standing hanger, 40 kg). Temperatures, CO, CO2, and O2 concentrations were obtained during tests. Results showed maximum heat release rates of 1991 kW (A1) and 2308 kW (B1), with fire spread to the circular hanger group in B1 at 493 s. CO exceeded critical levels 1.5 min after ignition, O2 dropped to critical levels at 11 min, and CO2 surpassed exposure limits at 4 min. The experiments highlight the influence of product arrangement and spacing on fire propagation, gas emissions, and heat release, providing critical data for performance-based fire safety design and evacuation planning in retail textile environments.
Rapid suppression of incipient fires is essential for reducing casualties and property damage, and the effectiveness of response often depends on the activation speed of indoor fire hydrant systems. This study examines delays caused by manual activation and evaluates the efficiency of automated solutions. Controlled experiments were conducted with 10 participants operating hydrant cabinets equipped with electronically actuated solenoid valves, motorised valves and old- and new-type angle valves. Each participant performed five activation trials per valve type from a distance of 3 m. Operating time, defined as the interval from cabinet opening to water discharge, was averaged for comparison. Results showed clear differences: electronically actuated valves ranged from 6.74 to 13.4 s, old-type angle valves from 10.2 to 17.8 s, and motorised valves were fastest at 3.81 to 6.55 s. Automated valve systems consistently outperformed manual valves, demonstrating that electronically controlled and motorised solutions significantly improve response speed and reliability in indoor fire hydrant systems.
Variations in test conditions can significantly affect the performance of intumescent coatings. This study examines the impact of different furnace setups and atmospheric conditions on the fire resistance performance and char morphology of an epoxy-based intumescent coating. The results reveal notable differences in char morphology and thermal insulation properties across various setups. This work underscores the complexity of testing in large industrial furnaces, where significant differences were observed based on the steel shape and location. The chars produced in lab-scale furnaces resembled those in the outer flanges of H-columns tested in the industrial furnace, suggesting that similar thermal conditions were achieved. Samples tested under different atmospheric conditions showed differences in the pore size distribution, with smaller pores in the char exposed to inert conditions. This work highlights the sensitivity of intumescent coatings to testing conditions and emphasizes the need for developing test methods that can accurately simulate standardized heating curves.
Intumescent paints could be used in exterior applications and provide beneficial fire protection for structures located in wildfire-prone areas if the paints were more durable to weathering. A limited number of studies have evaluated the effectiveness of intumescent paints on wood post-weathering, and they have shown that the service life is relatively short, on the order of about one year. None of the previous studies assessed the effects of applying multiple coatings, including an acrylic latex color, bonding primer, and acrylic topcoat, over an intumescent paint. The effects of proper versus improper coating application have also not been evaluated. Here we used a cone calorimeter at three heat fluxes to investigate the fire performance of multiple combinations of coatings applied to cedar shingles. Depending on coating combination, specimens were subjected to either natural or accelerated weathering. The results showed after one year of natural weathering that no char expansion of the intumescent paint occurred, indicating all coating systems failed with UV and moisture degrading the topcoat(s). With similar thickness, application method had little effect on overall fire performance of the coating systems both before and after accelerated weathering.
Reliable interpretation of fire pattern indicators is essential for wildland fire origin investigations, yet experimental validation is scarce. Damage Differential in the context of this study refers to the measurable changes in combustible and noncombustible objects after fire exposure, enabling the comparison and contrast of fire-caused effects on different faces or zones of artifacts, as described in NWCG PMS 412 (2025, 2016, 2005) and NFPA 921. The principle was quantifiably applied using image analysis and statistical methods (ANOVA) to evaluate directional reliability under controlled wind and fuel conditions. Our approach aims to reduce subjective interpretation by linking observed damage to specific fire dynamics and environmental factors. This study presents laboratory-scale wind tunnel experiments evaluating the directional behavior of commonly used indicators. Statistical analysis using ANOVA revealed that wind speed, fuel load, and artifact orientation each had a significant influence on fire indicators (p < 0.001). Findings show that while indicators can yield reproducible directional cues, their reliability is bounded by specific interactions between fire intensity and airflow conditions. A complementary field-scale study is underway to evaluate fire patterns in operational settings, thereby strengthening the scientific basis for evidence-based wildland fire investigations.
One of the potential solutions for protecting against fire losses is to integrate fire-protection barriers into products that are exposed to various fire risk scenarios. When a fire occurs, the barrier slows fire spread. The composition and performance of these barrier materials vary depending upon the product being protected. This article discusses the concepts, definitions, and use of fire-protection barriers, including their integration into various polymeric material systems, trade-offs and limitations, and the mechanisms of the four main types of barriers. The article concludes with identification of known gaps of knowledge along with areas of future work needed to advance use and performance of fire-protection barriers.
This study analyzes post-suppression ventilation strategies in a simulated 70 m2 residential unit within a firefighter training environment, utilizing training fuels. It compares five tactical approaches: ventilation-controlled, ventilation by using thermal buoyancy, positive pressure ventilation (PPV), and hydraulic ventilation with single and dual openings. Results demonstrate that tactical ventilation significantly outperformed ventilation-controlled strategies. While positive pressure ventilation achieved superior temperature reduction (25.49% at 1.7 m height), it caused temporary CO increases and visibility loss due to turbulence. Hydraulic ventilation with dual openings proved most effective overall, delivering the highest visibility category and 44.71% CO reduction while maintaining clear smoke extraction. These findings offer evidence-based guidance for fire services to refine their post-suppression protocols, ultimately enhancing firefighter safety and improving survival outcomes in residential fires.
An experimental study of smoke propagation from an apartment to an escape route corridor in a real-scale residential building is presented in this paper. The experiments were performed using the same experimental setup but with different ventilation and apartment door opening times. The setup consisted of a fire in a two-seater sofa in an apartment connected to a corridor and other apartments. A total of four scenarios are presented in this paper. The baseline scenario examines the smoke propagation from the apartment to the corridor during a ventilation-limited fire with a closed fa & ccedil;ade and door between the apartment and corridor opening after 5 min. In the other scenarios, the effect of closing the door, smoke permeability and ventilation openings in the fa & ccedil;ade are investigated. The results show the impact of ventilation and door opening time on the conditions in the corridor. Closing the door of the apartment has a significant impact on decreasing smoke propagation, for example carbon monoxide concentrations in the corridor are 15-26 times lower than the baseline scenario. Ventilation openings have less impact, for example carbon monoxide concentrations are 2.6-3.7 times lower than the baseline scenario when additional ventilation openings are used. Overall, the results demonstrate the reliability of the design and provide insights into smoke propagation in real-scale residential buildings.
This rise in the number of fires involving lithium-ion batteries has escalated the need for a methodology to determine the root cause of the fire, which will be proposed herein for the post-incident assessment. Just as with fire in general, investigators use a systematic framework, reliant on collection and careful analysis of forensic evidence, and based on the scientific method of inquiry. This article presents a systematic methodology or process to analyze batteries involved in a fire during the post-fire analysis. It involves examining Li-ion cells of varying construction, using an approach including visual inspection, X-ray, CT scan, and testing of exemplars to identify operation behaviors contributing to an event. The focus is mainly on the most common designs of consumer Li-ion batteries, cylindrical and pouch. The framework applies both experience from literature and observations from investigating over a thousand battery-involved fire incidents.
To develop a new material formulation meeting the stringent HL2-R1 requirement of EN 45545 railway standard, an innovative approach based on the reduced-scale fire testing was used in this paper. A concept combining the following elements was employed: (1) a polyolefin, (2) a reinforcing agent, (3) an intumescent agent acting in the condensed phase, (4) a char enhancer, and (5) an agent acting in the gas phase. This article presents a study of the opacity and toxicity of the smoke, as well as the heat released by this material when exposed to a radiant flux of 50 kW/m2. The study also encompasses the flame propagation when exposed to a large radiant flux. The diversity of the fire scenarios considered and the versatility of the material developed bring new solutions to the railway sector and open the way to the use of new manufacturing processes such as three-dimensional printing.
Treatment of Palabora vermiculite with ammonium chloride or ammonium nitrate solutions caused the collapse of its structure, resulting in a reduction of the exfoliation onset temperature by more than 200°C. It is speculated that ammonium ions enter the hydrobiotite galleries as guest ions partially replacing the hydration water associated with the magnesium ions. The effectiveness of various modified vermiculite flakes as flame-retardant fillers was evaluated in laminates of high-density polyethylene and plasticized polyvinyl chloride/vermiculite-modified composites. The laminates comprised a high-density polyethylene sheet coated with polyvinyl chloride plasticized with 100 phr of a phosphate ester and filled with 40 phr vermiculite. Cone calorimetry results, measured at a radiant flux of 35 kW m −2 , revealed that copper-ion modified vermiculite was the most effective flame-retardant additive. Laminates coated with polyvinyl chloride containing copper-ion-modified vermiculite exhibited a significantly reduced peak heat release rate of 64kW/m 2 , compared to 677kW/m 2 for uncoated high-density polyethylene, demonstrating the potential of polyvinyl chloride–based flame-retardant coatings incorporating copper-ion-modified vermiculite for polyethylene.
The aircraft cargo compartment photoelectric smoke detector’s high false alarm rate is a serious threat to flight safety. Common nuisance aerosols that cause false alarms include dust, water vapor, and water mist particles. The light scattering characteristics differ between nuisance aerosols and smoke particles, which can be used to distinguish particle types to reduce the false alarm rate. For this experiment, we chose standard fire smoke particles, test dust particles, water vapor and water mist particles in accordance with the aerospace standard (SAE AS 8036A) as well as other standards like EN 54 and ISO12103-1. For numerical analysis, the scattering characteristics of fire smoke and nuisance aerosols under various wavelength incident light sources were calculated using Mieplot and Discrete Dipole Approximation (DDA). Under 460 and 940 nm light sources, measurements of the scattering light intensity of fire smoke and nuisance aerosols were done at different angles. The results showed that we could distinguish fire smoke from nuisance aerosols based on the ratio of the dual light sources’ scattering light intensity at a scattering angle of 30°. This method can effectively reduce the photoelectric smoke detector’s false alarm rate and better distinguish between fire smoke and nuisance aerosols in the aircraft cargo compartment.
