Social learning and communication enable animals to enhance their adaptability and behavioural flexibility in response to changing environmental conditions. This paper examines current perspectives on the diversity of social learning mechanisms, their ecological significance, and the behavioural mechanisms underlying the spread of novel behaviours within animal groups, with particular attention to the relationship between innovativeness and intelligence and the potential for innovative behaviours to spread through social learning. Within this framework, I highlight the distributed social learning (DSL) hypothesis, which posits that the initial performance of a complete behavioural pattern by a few individuals promotes its spread among conspecifics that possess only dormant fragments of the same behaviour. These fragments consist of short, neutral action sequences that, under favourable conditions, can be integrated into a coherent and functional pattern. Drawing on a wide range of research on social learning, I propose that DSL functions as a form of ‘folk culture’, blending innate, previously dormant behavioural components with learned ones. This process may enable animals to assemble novel behavioural patterns by recruiting and integrating pre-existing latent fragments of behaviour more efficiently than would be possible through entirely de novo acquisition.
Hunting female fireflies of the Photurinae subfamily specialize in feeding on heterospecific male fireflies, generally smaller than themselves, responding to their courtship signals. Photuris spp. females hunt males of Photinus spp. species, from which they obtain nutrients and defensive toxins. In some localities, Photuris lugubris is sympatric with Photinus extensus, whose males are larger than the hunting females. Here, we report a field study of the frequency of interactions between signalling P. extensus males and hunting P. lugubris females. We also report an experiment to determine whether P. lugubris females attack and feed on P. extensus males in captivity. In more than 18 h of focal observations, we only observed one case in which a P. extensus male was attracted by a P. lugubris female, but no attack occurred. In our experiment, females attacked in 17
This study presents a comparative analysis of original laboratory data on optional insect-hunting behaviour across 21 species of myomorph rodents, which revealed that, during the phase of prey attacks, the dropping out of elements from the “bite–seizing with paws” sequence followed distinct species-level patterns. The behavioural elements ‘bite’ and ‘seizing with paws’ differed in the degree to which their expression was evolutionarily constrained. Zero-inflated negative binomial phylogenetic generalized linear mixed model (ZINB PGLMM) analysis revealed a statistically significant negative association between the dropping out of these behavioral elements, indicating that most species tended to omit a single attack element rather than both. Cricetinae uniquely exhibited pronounced inter-individual variability, with individuals omitting either element. In Gerbillinae, the dropping out of ‘bites’ occurred not only during unsuccessful attacks but also during successful hunting sequences. Notably, this dropping out showed a strong phylogenetic signal, suggesting a close correspondence between variation in this trait and species relationships. Together, these results highlight the flexibility of sequential attack patterns in rodents, indicating that stereotyped action patterns can be reorganised in response to ecological and behavioural demands. The dropping out of ‘bites’ may represent a transitional step toward more derived attack strategies, such as initiating prey capture with the forepaws. Given the observed interspecific and individual-level variability, we propose that experience-dependent processes may contribute to the modification of hunting sequences. Stable individual differences in hunting behaviour may therefore provide a substrate for natural selection under changing ecological conditions, offering promising directions for future experimental and comparative research.
Distress calls are widespread among frogs, yet their communicative function remains poorly understood. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including startling predators, warning nearby individuals, and attracting other animals that may interfere with predation, but direct evidence supporting any of these functions is scarce. Here we report an opportunistic observation of a Blacksmith Treefrog (Boana faber) emitting distress calls while being attacked by a vine snake (Chironius sp.) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. During the predation event, four hybrid marmosets (Callithrix jacchus × C. penicillata) approached the source of the calls, closely followed the snake, and physically interacted with it while the frog continued vocalizing. The marmosets became progressively more engaged as the frog increased the intensity and rate of distress calling, suggesting that the calls attracted their attention and may have contributed to their interference with the predator. Although the outcome of the predation attempt could not be determined, this observation suggests that frog distress calls may attract nearby animals to an ongoing predation event, potentially creating additional opportunities for escape. Further field observations and experimental studies are needed to determine how widespread this phenomenon is and whether it may have contributed to the evolution of distress calls in frogs.
The ocean’s physical properties and ecological complexity shape a unique selective environment for the evolution of cognition and behaviour in marine life. This review explores how marine organisms sense, interpret, and act upon information in a three-dimensional space that shifts constantly, influenced by light attenuation, sound transmission, and hydrodynamic flow. We combine information across taxa to show how social and environmental pressures have influenced both domain-specific specialisation and domain-general flexibility. From the diffuse nerve nets of cnidarians to the complex brains of cephalopods and cetaceans, marine cognition displays multiple evolutionary pathways to abilities like problem-solving, learning, and innovation. In ectothermic fish, modular brain systems seem to manage specialised tasks such as social negotiation or spatial learning. Meanwhile, endothermic marine mammals exhibit domain-general intelligence characterised by behavioural flexibility and cultural transmission. It is also discussed individual and social learning behaviours, including cooperation, imitation and teaching, and their ecological significance in marine ecosystems. Unknown insights into cognition under natural conditions are now possible thanks to recent technological developments, including biologging, autonomous vehicles, acoustic monitoring, and neurogenomic tools. Finally, we discuss how anthropogenic stressors such as pollution, artificial noise and light disrupt behavioural plasticity, with implications for adaptation and species resilience. This review combines evolutionary, behavioural, and technical perspectives to present the ocean as a testing ground for cognitive evolution. Furthermore, we also advocate for the broader inclusion of marine ecosystems in ethological and comparative cognitive studies.
The quantity and quality of diet consumed by ladybugs can influence their life cycle and behavior, in both females and males. Diet can influence female’s pre-oviposition period, mate choice and ovary development, and male’s spermatophore composition and foraging for copulation. We tested the reproductive behavior of Cryptoleamus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in four different diet treatments: (1) males and females fed only on honey; (2) males fed on honey and females fed on mealybugs; (3) males fed on mealybugs and females fed on honey; (4) males and females fed only on mealybugs. We also tested if the shift from honey to mealybug restores sexual behaviors on male and females. We found that the alternative diet modifies the sexual behavior of the species. Males fed on honey had significantly fewer engagements and copulations and females became more susceptible to male harassment. A variation in female behavior in both diets indicates that copulation frequency is likely related to the males’ diet. There was a significant increase in the behavioral events when the individuals fed mealybug for seven days. The study suggests that the exclusive consumption of alternative diets, like honey, is an important inhibitory factor in pre-copulatory behavior in C. montrouzieri. These findings suggest that carbohydrate-rich alternative diets may reduce reproductive efficiency in mass-rearing systems and should be carefully managed when maintaining populations of biological control agents.
Dominance hierarchies are fundamental for understanding the social structure of primate groups. Traditionally, primatological research has focused on female-female interactions to figure out aggression patterns. This approach, centered on female philopatry and food competition among females, has often neglected intersexual interactions and typically examined male and female dominance hierarchies independently, despite beloging to the same social group. Recent studies suggest that intersexual dominance relationships may significantly affect group dominance dynamics, challenging the assumption that males in sexually dimorphic species dominate females. In this study, we examined the effect of intersexual interactions on dominance hierarchies and social structures across four macaque groups (Macaca mulatta n = 11, Macaca fascicularis n = 11, Macaca sylvanus n = 23, and Macaca tonkeana n = 19) living in semi-free ranging conditions. These species were selected for their pronounced sexual dimorphism and wide range of aggressive interactions across different social styles, enabling the assessment of the importance of intersexual interactions. We compared aggressive behavior patterns in the four groups taking into account female–female interactions only versus interactions between all group members (i.e., female–female, female–male and male–male relationships). Analysis of aggressive interactions between all group members showed that groups with a higher proportion of males exhibited smoothed measures of aggressive behavior patterns, resulting in more egalitarian dominance dynamics. Our results suggest that, at least in semi-free ranging groups of macaques, intersexual interactions play a crucial role in shaping aggressive behavior patterns and should be considered when assessing dominance hierarchies.
Color is one of the most conspicuous attributes in nature, strongly associated with behavior and with individual performance. In lizards, color plays an important role in social signaling, including sex recognition, dominance, aggressiveness, physiological condition, and locomotor performance; in some species, it also occurs as discrete color polymorphisms. These polymorphisms have often been linked to alternative reproductive strategies shaped by sexual selection. Here, we experimentally evaluated the association between male color polymorphism, male-male agonistic behavior, and female mate choice in the bunchgrass lizard Sceloporus aeneus. Males exhibit three lateral color morphs: gray, yellow, and orange. We quantified coloration using digital image analysis, assessed aggression through dyadic observations, and evaluated female preference for each morph. We found significant seasonal variation in lateral and ventral coloration, as well as differences in agonistic behavior among morphs. However, these patterns were not strongly associated with dominance status or female preference. Our findings suggest that color polymorphism in S. aeneus may not be a strong signal of male status or fighting ability. Instead, this polymorphism may be maintained by nonsexual selective pressures and random mating, highlighting the potential role of alternative evolutionary mechanisms in shaping phenotypic diversity within the genus.
The ocean plays a crucial role in regulating climate, supporting biodiversity, and providing resources to coastal communities. However, human activities such as overfishing, pollution, and climate change are increasingly threatening marine ecosystems. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are essential for conservation, but their effectiveness depends on continuous, adaptive monitoring to track both ecological and behavioural changes in marine life. This review examines how different non-invasive monitoring techniques, and their combination, including Underwater Visual Census (UVC), Baited Remote Underwater Video Systems (BRUVS), and Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) offer opportunities to survey fish community distribution and phenology. Sound is highlighted as a fundamental component of marine ecosystems, shaping species communication, habitat selection, and behavioural dynamics. Here, we discuss the comparison of ecological and ecoacoustic indices, such as acoustic complexity, richness, and evenness, to improve our understanding of acoustic behavioural patterns in fishes, with direct relevance for monitoring marine ecosystems. We further discuss how monitoring strategies can be refined to capture not only species presence and abundance, but also behaviour, ecosystem function, and the impacts of human activities, supporting more effective and adaptive MPA management.
One of the major tasks in experimental ethology is the development of behavioral paradigms that take into account ecological characteristics of behavior and at the same time have broad cross-species validity. Categorization is a widespread fundamental cognitive process that enables animals to generalize sensory information and make decisions under conditions of environmental stimuli variability. Here, we describe a single-session visual categorization task - the “bead floor” model, adapted for several avian model species. This paradigm was originally developed for newly hatched domestic chicks in standardized laboratory conditions. Here we adapted it for adult songbirds (zebra finches). Further, the behavioral and ethological relevance of the model was demonstrated in adult wild non-songbirds (pigeons) in their natural habitat. Across all three species, birds showed a rapid decrease in pecking responses toward non-edible beads over the course of a single training session. In zebra finches, this behavioral change was accompanied by transfer to beads of novel size and colors, providing stronger support for the interpretation that birds may group visually similar non-edible objects into a common perceptual category. Thus, the paradigm exhibits reproducibility both under strictly controlled settings and in wild birds in their natural habitat, which confirms its high behavioral and ethological validity.
Jarman’s hypothesis maintains that larger-bodied grazers that feed mainly on grass-like graminoids tend to form large groups, and smaller-bodied browsers that feed mainly on non-graminoids tend to be solitary. Whether this hypothesis held true for forest-dwelling ungulates in subtropical zones had not been investigated. We evaluate Jarman’s hypothesis by investigating grouping behaviour of three sympatric subtropical forest-dwelling ungulates—sambar (a larger-bodied grazer), and Reeves’ muntjac and Formosan serow (smaller-bodied browsers)—in Yushan National Park, central Taiwan. We found no differences in group size among these species, with each being mainly solitary throughout the year. This suggest that grazer-like diets and large body size do not promote increased group size in this forest habitat. Subtropical cloud forests provide many opportunities for animals to conceal themselves, rendering antipredator benefits associated with being in groups of limited value. Female groups—the presumed foundation of gregarious societies—occurred only in sambar, suggesting that a grazer-like diet and large body size provide the basis for group formation. Highly productive and uniformly distributed graminoids—the staple food of sambar, and thought to mitigate intraspecific food competition—possibly explain why female group formation occurred only in sambars. These findings suggest that the direct selective pressure for increased group size in open habitat where places for animals to conceal themselves are few is predation, rather than the need to mitigate intraspecific competition for food resources.
This paper is a claim for the potential benefits of teaching ethology to achieve educational benchmarks such as scientific and evolutionary literacy. It might be of interest for ethologists to merge their knowledge with the insights of science education. Ethology may potentially contribute to a broad biological literacy, which has potentials for efficient training of biological skills (doing biology), understanding the nature of science (learning about biology), as well as learning biological content (learning biology). In fact, human and animal behaviour may be regarded as an opportunity for teaching and training evolutionary thinking in biology education. However, behaviour and evolution are still viewed as a complex matter by teachers at secondary schools. For example, ‘Tinbergen’s four whys’ are a seminal and seemingly basic content, yet a complex teaching subject. We aim at revealing the conceptual and methodological potentials of teaching ethology in the frame of biology education, pinpointing some common misunderstandings of teachers and students, potential pitfalls, as well as historical misunderstandings and ideological influences in the early days of ethology. Educators are encouraged to communicate the history and nature of science at school, and to emphasize ethological contents. To do so, teachers need to be well informed, and scientists are invited to think about how to communicate the core concepts of ethology.
Mate choice is among the most consequential decisions organisms make, with profound implications for individual fitness, population dynamics, and evolutionary trajectories. Since Darwin’s foundational work on sexual selection, research on mate choice has expanded enormously, yet some conceptual, empirical, and methodological challenges remain. In this review, I synthesize key themes in the contemporary study of mate choice, with particular emphasis on female and male choice, mutual selection, and the dynamic interplay between the sexes. I highlight a few persistent biases in the literature, including strong taxonomic skew, and a focus on sensory modalities and experimental designs that are intuitive to humans but may poorly reflect the perceptual worlds of other organisms. I discuss the costs and benefits of mate choice and emphasize the importance of social information and environmental context in shaping mating decisions. Methodological approaches, especially binary choice tests, are critically evaluated with respect to their strengths, limitations, and biological realism. I further explore the broader consequences of mate choice, including its roles in reproductive isolation, hybridization, and speciation. Finally, I identify key open questions and promising future directions, ranging from the integration of neurobiology, genomics, and cognition to the impacts of environmental change and the potential roles of deception and individual variation. Together, this review argues for a more integrative approach to mate choice, recognizing it as a dynamic process embedded in complex ecological and social systems.
Dorsolateral flattening is a defensive behavior observed in several snake taxa, typically involving lateral expansion of the body to increase apparent size and deter predators. Although this behavior has been documented in other snake families, its occurrence in boid snakes remains poorly understood. Here, we present the first confirmed field observations of full-body dorsolateral flattening in Eryx jaculus, a boid species native to southeastern Europe. The behavior was recorded under natural conditions during close approach, attempted capture, or brief handling and involved coordinated lateral expansion along the entire body trunk. In several cases, flattening was accompanied by mock strikes, mainly expressed during attempted capture. These observations indicate a multi-modal defensive strategy that combines visual and behavioral deterrents. This expands the known behavioral repertoire of Boidae and supports the hypothesis that full-body flattening may represent a convergent trait evolved independently across phylogenetically distant lineages. We discuss the anatomical basis, ecological context, and potential adaptive significance of these behaviors, contributing new insights into snake defensive strategies within European species assemblages. More broadly, this study provides new insight into the defensive ecology of a poorly documented European boid and highlights the importance of opportunistic field observations for detecting rare or context-dependent antipredator behaviors.
Sexual dimorphism in bird ornamentation is well-documented, with male traits often emphasized in sexual selection studies, while female ornamentation remains understudied. Investigating European serins (Serinus serinus) and common waxbills (Estrilda astrild), I summarize experimental evidence revealing that sex differences in ornamentation arise from sex-specific ecological and physiological constraints, particularly affecting females. In European serins, female ornamentation does not function as a sexual or dominance signal, contrasting with males. In common waxbills, female bill colouration is highly plastic and sensitive to ecological conditions and oestradiol levels, leading to context-dependent sexual dichromatism that can be reduced or eliminated under favourable conditions. Together, these results challenge the view that sexual dichromatism is predominantly genetically fixed and male driven, highlighting female colouration plasticity as a key source of variation in ornamentation and social signalling. These findings underscore the need to integrate female colour variation for understanding the evolution of sexual and social signals.
Several authors have proposed that using music as sensory stimulation can positively impact animal welfare. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the impact of classical music as environmental enrichment on the behavior of 25 white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) using an ABA design (A1/A2: control; B: enrichment). Over 63 h of focal animal observation (5 min/individual) during five-day phases, we recorded affiliative, agonistic, inactive, and exploratory behaviors. Our results indicate that classical music significantly increased exploratory behaviors (P < 0.05) and decreased inactivity (P < 0.05) in peccaries, suggesting a positive welfare effect. As opposed to our initial expectations, affiliative behaviors were unaffected by the auditory enrichment. Likewise, we found no immediate reduction in agonistic interactions; rather, these behaviors seemed to intensify alongside heightened exploratory activity, indicating a potential relationship between the two. These findings contribute to the ongoing debate regarding music as enrichment and highlight the need for further comprehensive research into the effects of auditory stimuli on this species.
In nature, predation is one of the most ecologically relevant maternal stressors that can influence mammalian offspring during both the gestational period (by increasing plasma levels of glucocorticoids in the mother) and postpartum period (through maternally-derived glucocorticoids in milk and altering the quality and quantity of parental care). In this work, we investigated the effects of pre and/or postnatal maternal predatory stress on mother-pups interaction and offspring’s behavior in the wild subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum. To achieve this, we evaluated the maternal care provided to the offspring, the maternal physiological condition at weaning and the behavioral profile of the progeny at the beginning of the juvenile stage. The results showed an effect of exposure to predatory cues (urine and fur odors, and immobilization) at the time of pregnancy and/or lactation on the number of negative interactions of mothers towards their pups (specifically avoidance and aggression). However, no effect of predatory stress on maternal physiological condition at weaning (plasma cortisol levels, neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, and blood glucose levels) was observed. Furthermore, prenatal and/or postnatal exposure of mothers to predatory stress did not affect the behavioral response of juveniles in the open field test at 61 days of age. Altogether, these results show support for a low impact of maternal predatory stress on both mother and offspring in this wild rodent. Available information on the effects of maternal stress in wild species is very limited, therefore expanding and deepening studies on non-model rodents, like C. talarum, represent an important contribution to our understanding of the ecological effects of stress during gestation, maternal care, and consequently, its transgenerational effects in nature.
Social animals have evolved behavioural strategies to cope with the inevitable conflicts associated with group living. In this study, we examined the postconflict behaviour of Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) to evaluate the relative prevalence of aggressive and affiliative interactions involving the former opponents and other group members. Although renewed aggression was the most common behaviour following a conflict, tahr also showed an increase in the rate of affiliative interactions between former opponents (reconciliation). Victims of aggression also showed an increase in the rate of scratching and selfgrooming, two common displacement activities that can be used as indicators of an anxiety-like emotional state. Contrary to expectations, reconciliation did not affect either renewed aggression or postconflict anxiety. These results add to the relatively scant literature on the conflict management strategies of nonprimate species and contribute to our understanding of the understudied complexities of the social life of ungulates.
Gibbons are small apes distributed throughout Southeast Asia known for their loud vocalizations (songs). Female gibbons produce a loud, elaborate, and stereotyped song known as the great call (GC). From 2009 to 2025, we studied four female gibbons (Hylobates funereus) from three groups in northern Borneo to investigate how the birth and development of offspring affect female GCs. We measured the distance between mother and offspring as an indicator of offspring independence. We also recorded all vocalizations of the group. We hypothesized that female GCs would become shorter and the note speeds would slow down after birth. This is because, first, mothers are devoting their energy to raising their offspring and need to conserve energy for singing, and second, offspring’s songs are short and slow, so mothers adapt to them. We measured duration, number of notes, maximum and minimum frequencies, and note speed of female GCs. Preliminary random sampling of the GCs’ Inter Onset Interval (IOI) before and after giving birth revealed differences only in the first half. Therefore, the note speed was analyzed for the first half (FH; 1st–20th) and overall (All). Comparing acoustic parameters before and after birth revealed significant decreases in duration, number of notes, and maximum frequency. Conversely, note speed (FH and All) showed a significant increase, particularly in FH. Furthermore, temporal changes in acoustic parameters differed depending on whether offspring were already present in the group, suggesting that their presence may trigger flexible vocal adjustments. Our findings did not support the hypothesis that the note speeds would slow down after birth. Although we discussed several possible reasons, the underlying cause remains unclear. Further studies are needed to clarify the function and mechanisms of this vocal change.
