Abstract Collocations are a key component of second language (L2) mastery. Yet, their acquisition poses major challenges to L2 learners. One potential solution to this difficulty is employing the mnemonic effect of alliteration (e.g., pr ofessional pr actice ). In the present study, 230 Japanese EFL university students learnt alliterative and non-alliterative collocations (e.g., p rimary p urpose vs. primary care ) under vocalised and non-vocalised conditions in a within-subject design. Vocalisation frequencies were operationalised (none, once, three, and five times) over four weeks to examine potential differences across repetition frequencies. Immediate and delayed productive recall post-test assessed collocational uptake. Results showed that alliterative collocations yielded greater gains than non-alliterative ones when vocalisation was involved, suggesting a conditional benefit of vocalisation in combination with phonological salience. A modest advantage was observed in the three-times vocalisation condition in the immediate post-test; however, it was not reliably maintained at the delayed post-test.
Abstract The global spread of English has led to its status as a lingua franca, facilitating communication across diverse linguistic and cultural boundaries. With the enhancement of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in higher education, English proficiency is a requirement for students aspiring to study abroad. This paper examines test takers’ perceptions of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) from a Global Englishes (GE) perspective with a focus on Chinese and Thai students. Through a questionnaire and interviews, the findings revealed that while test takers value the IELTS for its global recognition and role in facilitating international education, they also raised concerns about its alignment with the diverse linguistic realities they encounter in EMI environments. Participants highlighted the need for more inclusive assessment practices that recognize the plurality of English. These insights suggest that incorporating GE elements into the IELTS could enhance its relevance and fairness in order to prepare students for real-world communication challenges; however, such incorporation requires better understanding of the future needs of language assessment. The findings offer practical implications for the development of more inclusive, GE-informed language assessments that align more closely with the communicative demands of EMI environments and better support students’ academic and social integration during study abroad.
Abstract This study examines the effect of extramural activities in English on Spanish university students’ acquisition of the English phonemes /b/, /v/, /j/, and /dʒ/, using data collected via a questionnaire and a reading-aloud test administered to 58 students aged 18–20. The AI-powered software Phonexia and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Listening to music and watching videos were the most frequently practiced activities, while gaming was the least. Although the target sounds were largely accurately pronounced, some typical errors for Spanish learners were observed. No significant correlation was found between exposure to extramural activities and the pronunciation outcomes. The practical nature of pronunciation, the most frequently practiced extramural activities, and other variables are considered when interpreting the results.
Abstract Research shows that adolescents learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) extramurally, but few studies have explored the connection between extramural English (EE), speaking, and interactional competence (IC). This exploratory mixed-methods study investigates 21 10th-grade L2 English learners in Norway and Flanders who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a video-recorded speaking test (National English Speaking Test, NEST). They were assessed on speaking and IC. Results showed a slight significant correlation between total EE and NEST scores ( r s = .462, p = .047), a strong correlation between the factor “EE Social Interaction” and NEST scores ( r s = .696, p < .001), but no correlations with the IC-score. However, close analyses (Conversation Analysis) of recorded interaction data indicated an EE — IC relation in terms of displayed competencies.
While frameworks like Illustration-Interaction-Intervention-Induction often guide data-driven learning (DDL), few studies examine whether they reflect actual learner behaviour or a prescriptive ideal. This paper analysed field recordings and worksheets from 61 participants using grounded theory, identifying 'learning events' (i.e., what learners do) and 'learning sequences' (i.e., when and why they do so), grounded in constructivism, sociocultural theory, and the Noticing Hypothesis. These macro-and micro-level insights reveal DDL as a non-linear, iterative process shaped by data observation, repeated rule extraction and testing. The findings inform DDL studies by highlighting the importance of considering non-linearity in task design and providing regular scaffolding. Beyond DDL, the paper contributes to a broader understanding of collaborative, inductive learning and offers implications for task design across educational contexts.
The global spread of English has led to its status as a lingua franca, facilitating communication across diverse linguistic and cultural boundaries. With the enhancement of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in higher education, English proficiency is a requirement for students aspiring to study abroad. This paper examines test takers' perceptions of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) from a Global Englishes (GE) perspective with a focus on Chinese and Thai students. Through a questionnaire and interviews, the findings revealed that while test takers value the IELTS for its global recognition and role in facilitating international education, they also raised concerns about its alignment with the diverse linguistic realities they encounter in EMI environments. Participants highlighted the need for more inclusive assessment practices that recognize the plurality of English. These insights suggest that incorporating GE elements into the IELTS could enhance its relevance and fairness in order to prepare students for real-world communication challenges; however, such incorporation requires better understanding of the future needs of language assessment. The findings offer practical implications for the development of more inclusive, GE-informed language assessments that align more closely with the communicative demands of EMI environments and better support students' academic and social integration during study abroad.
This study examines the multimodal characteristics of child-directed (CDS) and adult-directed (ADS) speech, focusing on speech and gesture behavior, with particular emphasis on gesture referentiality, viewpoint, and informativeness. Forty Early Childhood Education students (Mage = 20.45, 35 female) narrated the same wordless cartoon to simulated adult and child audiences (TEACH-TALK corpus), producing 196.33 minutes of speech and 7,191 gestures. Results showed that the CDS narratives were longer and included more referential iconic gestures. No differences in the overall gesture rate or gesture informativeness were found between conditions. Notably, iconic gestures with character viewpoint exhibited a higher frequency in CDS, indicating that these gestures, in conjunction with speech, may facilitate children's comprehension by enhancing clarity and expressiveness of the narrative content.
Most previous studies focusing on extramural English (EE) and vocabulary acquisition are one-off studies measuring the relationship between EE and language performance measures at one time. This study contributes to EE research by adopting a longitudinal design to investigate learners' EE, vocabulary knowledge at the level of meaning recall, and attitudes. We collected data from two cohorts of primary school children prior to formal English instruction (ages 10-11 and ages 11-12). At two measurement times, one year apart, we measured their vocabulary knowledge in a meaning recall test, their EE engagement, and their attitudes towards English. The results indicated that young learners' vocabulary knowledge increased significantly over time, even if engagement with EE did not increase significantly. The participants in the two cohorts had positive attitudes towards English at both measurement times. Analyses showed that English vocabulary knowledge at Time 2 was predicted by English vocabulary knowledge at Time 1.
This study examines the relationship between informal L2 learning (ISLL) and affective variables (L2 motivation, self-confidence, L2 speaking anxiety, and grit) among 81 Arts and Science students at the University of the Balearic Islands. Data were collected using a questionnaire. Results indicate low ISLL engagement, particularly in productive activities. Self-confidence demonstrated positive correlations with all forms of informal engagement and was the only significant predictor of overall language contact. L2 motivation was positively associated with self-confidence and overall engagement, while both variables showed negative correlations with L2 speaking anxiety. Grit correlated negatively with informal practices and predicted reduced overall contact. No significant differences emerged between degree programs. These findings highlight the complex influence of affective factors - particularly self-confidence and grit - on informal L2 learning behaviours.
This study examines the effect of extramural activities in English on Spanish university students' acquisition of the English phonemes /b/, /v/, /j/, and /dz/, using data collected via a questionnaire and a reading-aloud test administered to 58 students aged 18-20. The AI-powered software Phonexia and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Listening to music and watching videos were the most frequently practiced activities, while gaming was the least. Although the target sounds were largely accurately pronounced, some typical errors for Spanish learners were observed. No significant correlation was found between exposure to extramural activities and the pronunciation outcomes. The practical nature of pronunciation, the most frequently practiced extramural activities, and other variables are considered when interpreting the results.
This study examines the relationship between engagement in extramural English (EE) activities and second language (L2) writing among 96 high school learners of English. Participants completed an EE questionnaire and a writing task. Their texts were analyzed using measures of syntactic and lexical complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Watching audiovisual content with English captions or without subtitles showed the strongest positive correlations with multiple writing metrics, including fluency, complexity, and grammatical and lexical accuracy. Listening to music and gaming were linked to fluency and lexical diversity, respectively. Reading, writing, speaking face-to-face, and listening to non-musical audio showed weaker but significant correlations. No significant relationships were found for watching with L1 subtitles or speaking online. Findings highlight the potential of audiovisual EE input to support L2 writing development.
Although cognitive and behavioral characteristics associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can influence language learning, little is known about how learners with ADHD engage with extramural English (EE), i.e., English-mediated recreational activities. This study explored how twelve university students with ADHD reflected on their EE use during secondary school. Three themes emerged: reasons for EE use, including accessing communities and cultures beyond their own, pursuing narrative escapes, and enhancing English proficiency; activity preferences, with a favoring of audiovisual and multisensory activities over single-input formats; and EE-instruction interactions, with EE fostering feelings of mastery and instruction being perceived as comparatively inauthentic. Considering EE practices in instruction offers opportunities to address learners' attentional differences and interest-based needs, with and without ADHD.
Research shows that adolescents learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) extramurally, but few studies have explored the connection between extramural English (EE), speaking, and interactional competence (IC). This exploratory mixed-methods study investigates 21 10th-grade L2 English learners in Norway and Flanders who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a video-recorded speaking test (National English Speaking Test, NEST). They were assessed on speaking and IC. Results showed a slight significant correlation between total EE and NEST scores (r(s) = .462, p = .047), a strong correlation between the factor "EE Social Interaction" and NEST scores (r(s) = .696, p < .001), but no correlations with the IC-score. However, close analyses (Conversation Analysis) of recorded interaction data indicated an EE - IC relation in terms of displayed competencies.
Second language (L2) acquisition research emphasises the critical role of out-of-classroom (extramural) input in L2 development. Despite its popularity among L2 learners, the effectiveness of gaming on incidental L2 vocabulary development remains understudied. Thus, this exploratory study investigates whether vocabulary can be acquired from playing computer games and how learner-specific factors (L2-English vocabulary size, gaming habits, engagement) influence learning gains. Twenty-three intermediate English learners played a modified game featuring embedded nonwords in the written game text. Vocabulary knowledge was assessed at form-recall and meaning-recognition levels. An increase in vocabulary knowledge was found for both levels immediately after treatment, with considerable retention after one week. Gaming habits and engagement significantly predicted gains. Findings suggest gaming is an effective extramural activity for incidental L2 vocabulary development, offering important insights for L2 teaching and research.
The present study provided the first meta-analysis of the relationship between phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and auditory L2 vocabulary acquisition while incorporating important moderator variables (e.g., age) and recent scholarly interests (e.g., vocabulary learning context). Results based on 52 effect sizes from 18 studies revealed a small-to-medium effect of PSTM (r = .31). PSTM test type was identified as a significant moderator, indicating that PSTM assessed through nonword/word repetition tasks shows a stronger association than digit span tasks. Vocabulary learning context approached statistical significance, suggesting that PSTM may exert a greater influence in intentional vocabulary learning settings compared to incidental, contextual learning ones. These findings reinforce the role of PSTM in L2 vocabulary development and highlight its relevance for L2 teaching practices.
This study investigates the effect of first language (L1) and second language (L2) frequency, cognateness, concreteness, and word length on language learners' receptive and productive word knowledge in English, French, German, and Spanish. A group of Dutch-speaking non-language students (N = 529) completed a meaning recognition test and a form recall test in English, French, German or Spanish. Meaning recognition in English was influenced by L1 frequency and concreteness. In French and German, it was affected by L2 frequency and cognateness, and in Spanish by L2 frequency. Regarding form recall, L2 frequency was the only significant predictor across all four languages. Our findings suggest that factors affecting word knowledge may depend on the type of knowledge tested and/or the context in which a language is learned.
This study investigated the impact of educating Austrian EFL teachers-in-training about the concept of task, on the premise that this understanding would be a significant prerequisite for them to effectively implement TBLT in their young learner classrooms. Participants were trainee teachers enrolled in a Master's program, where TBLT was a module of one of their courses. The course content centered around Ellis and Shintani's (2014) task principles, and emphasized an active, experiential understanding of TBLT theory and its relevance to teachers' own teaching practices. Participants designed, used and evaluated a language task in their classes. Results showed that most teachers developed tasks that met the prespecified criteria and effectively evaluated the challenges in their task implementations, providing valuable suggestions for future improvements.
