Svalbard has experienced significant warming since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA; around 1900 CE). Since the LIA, air temperatures have risen almost continuously, with even more accelerated warming trend recorded in recent decades. These climatic shifts have had serious impacts, particularly on the cryosphere but also on landscape dynamics, through an accelerated hydrological cycle and the intensification of various geomorphic processes. Surprisingly, Svalbard experienced a warmer climate for much of the Holocene compared to today, with only a few colder periods, the most pronounced being the LIA. In other words, Svalbard, as it was known to early polar explorers at the end of the 19th century, was at its maximum Holocene glacier extent. Nowadays, the environment is returning to its usual mode of operation, with a less glaciated landscape. However, the current rate of change is unprecedented. Here, we document the most striking landscape changes with a series of repeated photographs, comparing the landscape at the glacier's maximum extent (in 1908) with photographs taken at the same locations recently. We demonstrate the rapid evolution of glacier-connected geosystems and intense paraglaciation, where glacier-dominated processes are being replaced by fluvial, slope or aeolian forces. In contrast, landscapes that were not directly connected to glaciers appeared relatively stable and resilient to climatic forcings. As the landscape seeks to reach a new equilibrium after glacier retreat, this also triggers various natural hazards, such as slope failures, avalanches and floods, that may pose risks to human society and infrastructure. Together with the massive thawing of permafrost, these changes could endanger economic activities, tourism and even the traditional way of life of Indigenous communities in the Arctic.
An analysis of standard meteorological observations of horizontal visibility was performed, based on instrumental and visual observations at two Russian meteorological stations located on the southern coast of the Kara Sea. Horizontal visibility is an important navigation criterion for choosing safe routes and speeds along the Northern Sea Route. A decrease in horizontal visibility to less than 50 m is a dangerous weather event. The study of the conditions for the occurrence of such a dangerous phenomenon has become especially relevant when using giant ice-class tankers, the length of which reaches 300 m. The analysis showed that the frequency (probability) of unfavorable conditions for horizontal visibility has a pronounced seasonal variation. A relationship was found between the increase in frequency and changing climatic conditions, namely an increase in frequency against the background of modern global warming which is expressed both in a steady increase in surface air temperature in all seasons of the year and in a reduction of sea ice cover in the summer.
The importance of fisheries in the Arctic region is on the increase as climate change results in natural resources, both biological and non-biological, becoming more accessible. Catching snow crab, which is a non-native species in the Barents Sea, has contributed to an ongoing dispute between Norway, the European Union and some other states on the status of the waters surrounding the archipelago of Svalbard and fishing rights. Disagreements among the affected states over the management of the vast ocean areas surrounding Svalbard are mainly legally grounded in a dispute over the interpretation of the Svalbard Treaty (1920) and its interrelation with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). A question at the heart of this dispute is the extent of the rights of states to manage natural resources, especially considering developments in the international law of the sea with innovative concepts such as exclusive economic zones and the continental shelfs. This chapter examines how both international treaties apply to these complicated issues, which are at the same time impacting Arctic governance as such. The chapter links challenges identified within this legal framework with the deeper impact on the fragile Arctic environment, including the Barents Sea's benthic ecosystem. While the right to catch snow crab may be perceived as a relatively "minor issue", it well illustrates the complexity of the governance of the Arctic marine environment. Disputes over catching snow crab serve as a precursor of broader challenges relating to the exploration and exploitation of both living (fisheries) and non-living (oil, gas, rare earth metals) natural resources. There are wider practical consequences since the outcome of the "snow crab dispute" affects the equal access to other, arguably more profitable natural resources, including the reserves of hydrocarbons in the same waters.
The study was performed on the Kola Peninsula and aimed to assess the impact of climatic factors on Pinus sibirica's phenological development beyond the Arctic Circle in particular. Eight phenological parameters were analyzed, including vegetative bud swelling and breaking, initiation and cessation of annual linear shoot growth, full lignification of shoots, cessation of needle elongation and maturation, duration of linear lateral shoot growth, and needle growth period. Additionally, correlations between the onset of phenophases and temperature parameters, including average monthly and ten-day temperatures, the dates of the stable transition through the thresholds of 0, 5, and 10 degrees C, sums of active temperatures above 0, 5, and 10 degrees C for phenological phases and periods, monthly and ten-day sums of active temperatures, and monthly and ten-day cumulative sums of active temperatures starting from April, were investigated. Viability assessment involved evaluating the degree of annual shoot lignification, winter hardiness, habitus preservation, shoot-forming capacity, vertical shoot growth, generative reproduction, and reproduction in cultivation. Tree health categories were established based on examinations of root, butt, trunk, crown base, primary branches, and crown for indications of hollows, cracks, decay and fungal fruiting bodies, damage, wounds, weak forks, and dead branches. The onset dates of the phenophases occurring in the beginning of the vegetation period and full shoot lignification correlated with the dates of transition through the thresholds of 0 and 5 degrees C. In contrast, the onset dates of the phenophases occurring in the middle of the vegetation period and duration of phenological periods correlated with accumulated temperatures above 0 and 5 degrees C. The date of transition through 10 degrees C and its associated parameters yielded uninformative results. The onset dates of all phenophases exhibit negative correlations with the following parameters: (1) average temperatures in April and May, (2) the sums of active temperatures (SATs) exceeding 0 and 5 degrees C in May, (3) cumulative SATs above the thresholds of 0 and 5 degrees C from April to May and June, and (4) cumulative ten-day SATs above the thresholds of 0 and 5 degrees C before the onset of a phenophase. Pinus sibirica at Polar-Alpine Botanical Garden-Institute (PABGI) exhibited winter hardiness, maintained species-typical life form, and reached the generative stage of development. They were categorized as healthy or weakened. Visual inspection revealed no restrictions to root system growth. They displayed monocormic, unimucronate or bimucronate forms, with dense crowns and well-developed apical and lateral shoots. Some instances of reduced lateral shoot growth and V-shaped trunk forks were observed. Recommendations for regular monitoring, sanitary pruning and other agrotechnical measures have been formulated for the investigated tree individuals.
The gut microbiota of four Antarctic marine fish species-Notothenia coriiceps, Trematomus bernacchii, Trematomus hansoni, and Trematomus newnesi-were analysed, with a particular focus on the members of the Enterobacter cloacae complex. Nineteen isolated strains were characterised by rep-PCR, automated ribotyping, extended phenotyping, and MALDI-TOF MS analysis. Fingerprinting methods grouped the psychrotolerant isolates into two distinct groups, representing the dominant enteric bacteria in the gut contents of these fish. Following their preliminary identification as members of the Enterobacter cloacae complex, additional phylogenetic analyses were conducted using the 16S rRNA and rpoB genes, as well as fatty acid analysis and wholegenome sequencing of two representatives selected based on their fingerprints. All results indicated that the analysed group represents a new autochthonous Enterobacter taxon inhabiting the gut of fish of the family Nototheniidae. Based on average nucleotide identity (ANI) and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values, the "Enterobacter hoffmannii", the effectively published but non-valid name, was the most closely related species to representatives of both groups of isolates from the gut of the above-specified notothenioid fish. The name Enterobacter hoffmannii subsp. nototheniae subsp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain P5473T (= CCM 8629T = LMG 34031T), for isolates of Group 1. At the same time, the name Enterobacter hoffmannii subsp. hoffmannii subsp. nov. is suggested for isolates of Group 2, with the existing type strain DSM 14563T =
Antarctica offers a unique opportunity to study climate-related changes and ecological responses due to its remoteness and relatively undisturbed ecosystems. Pinnipeds, which are among the top predators in the Southern Ocean, are important bioindicators of environmental conditions. This study presents data on the distribution, species composition, and group sizes of pinnipeds observed during the VII Turkish Antarctic Research Expeservations were conducted both from the research vessel BIO Hesp & eacute;rides and during land-based surveys at nine sites located in the islands off the Danco and Graham Coasts, A total of 70 sightings were recorded, including five pinniped species from the Phocidae and Otariidae families: southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina), Weddell (Lobodon carcinophaga), and Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella). No Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) were sighted. Southern elephant seals sightings (n = 40) were the most frequently recorded, especially in the northern part of the study area, with one group comprising up to 250 individuals. Weddell seals (n = 16) were mostly sighted on the sea ice near Adelaide Island, while Antarctic fur seals (n = 8) were observed both on land and at sea, with one unusually large aggregation (approximately 1,000 individuals). Leopard seals (n = 3) and crabeater seals (n = 2) were observed in small numbers, mostly as solitary individuals or in small groups. These results contribute to the baseline knowledge of pinniped distribution patterns along the WAP and provide insights into regional population structures during the austral summer. The data are important for future ecological monitoring and understanding of species-specific responses to environmental changes in Antarctic ecosystems.
The Arctic, particularly the Barents Sea region including Svalbard, has undergone exceptional warming and environmental change throughout the Holocene. This study investigates Holocene relative sea level (RSL) changes in Petuniabukta, northern Billefjorden (Svalbard), using radiocarbon dated whale bones found on uplifted marine terraces as indicators of past shoreline positions. Five new samples from the western side of the bay were integrated with previously published data from the eastern side to reconstruct palaeoshorelines and quantify land emergence driven by glacioisostatic rebound. The two oldest samples, located at 58.1 m a.s.l. and 34.7 m a.s.l., date at 10.3 and 9.1 cal. ka BP respectively, indicate rapid Early Holocene uplift averaging 3 cm/year. Spatial analysis based on ArcticDEM and high-resolution UAV-derived models reveals a 33% reduction in the marine area since the Early Holocene, with significant changes occurring in broad glaciated valley regions. Discrepancies in RSL trends may be attributed to local tectonic activity along the Billefjorden Fault Zone. While Early Holocene changes are well constrained, Late Holocene and Neoglacial sea-level dynamics remain ambiguous due to a lack of preserved indicators and minimal RSL variation. These findings highlight the potential of stranded whale bones as precise RSL markers and contribute to understanding the long-term cryospheric and geomorphic evolution of coastal areas in a rapidly warming Arctic.
The primary goal of our study was to investigate the antiviral potential of natural extract of unique aboriginal Antarctic plant Colobanthus quitensis. The aqueous-ethanolic extract was assessed in vitro using MD & Scy;K (Madin-Darby Canine Kidney) and PEK The observed antiviral properties were juxtaposed with those of synthetic flavonoid compounds, namely apigenin and luteolin. Ultimately, the data show that C. quitensis extracts exhibit in vitro potent antiviral activity against TGEV coronavirus. The composition of natural C. quitensis extracts was investigated using MALDI mass spectrometry method.
A spatial-temporal temperature influence on Deschampsia antarctica populations adaptation was studied in the Galindez Island (Argentine Islands, the maritime Anatrctic) during seven consecutive Antarctic summer seasons (2017/19-2023/24). The subject of the research is the evaluation of complex adaptability (Iqki) characteristic for eleven populations of Deschampsia antarctica. Another goal was to analyze the temperature variables obtained with the help of microlimate loggers located at eleven sites, and their effects on the measured plant populations adaptability indices and to determine the united indices Itki of their influence on them. Determination of the Itki contribution to the complex index Iqki for eleven populations in the dynamics of seven summer seasons was calculated. Methods of determining the plants number in populations and measuring the morphometric indices of D. antarctica plants populations were used. Reserve and protective seed proteins were studied by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). The spatial variables of these indices extreme grouping method were applied for eleven populations to obtain an IqkI and Itki. Sets of complex indices were compared by regression technique. The populations forming general population (G-population) were found to develop unevenly depending on microconditions. In particular, individual populations with different frequencies matched into an asynchronous group, the populations of which were not matched of the general development trend of the G-population rest. The Itki contributions to Iqki were shown be not always positive. Negative contributions were observed in the season k=3 (2019/20) and in some individual months of the seasons k=5, 6, 7.
The 2022 development of the Russian aggression in Ukraine has stirred up the long-silent waters of the European energy dimension. The European Union's (EU) reaction was strong and surprisingly swift in comparison with the lax response to the start of the war in 2014. The consequent geopolitical shifts could be compared to those of the early 1990s, and the changes in traditional demand-supply energy relations are especially radical. With Russian coal and crude oil imports under sanctions, the European Union also quickly turned away from Russian natural gas. Natural gas, being the key Russian energy export commodity, lies at the centre of this paper. In the wake of the invasion and the decrease in gas exports to Europe, and with the federal budget being largely dependent on revenues from primary commodity exports, it is clearly apparent that Russia needs to look for customers elsewhere. One of the apparent options is to tap into the Russian Arctic export potential. The primary aim of this paper is to analyse the Russian Arctic export potential and to evaluate its capacity to replace the lost volumes using liquefied natural gas (LNG) export facilities. The authors use diachronic comparative analysis to evaluate Russia's export capacities in the Arctic and compare them to the situation before the war and in the following years up to 2040. The authors are thus able to assess the potential and possible impact the new Arctic export facilities may have on Russia's ability to offset the lost European market.
In the last four decades, warming in the Arctic has been much faster than in the rest of the World. The average air temperature in the Arctic has already risen at a rate of almost four times the global average. On average, the Arctic is now approximately 3 degrees C warmer than it was in 1980. Different Arctic regions - Svalbard in particular - warm faster than any other region on Earth. Such warming has consequences for terrestrial ecosystems. Since plant growth and development are closely linked to the temperature of spring and summer, the early onset of vegetation is one of the most remarkable consequences. Moreover, recent evidence from satellite data suggests there is a temperature-induced increase in growth rate and biomass production of Svalbard vegetation; plant species that dominate the tundra communities are growing taller and more densely. In this chapter, we present an analysis of climatic characteristics recorded at the Adventdalen weather station (operated by The University Centre in Svalbard) with particular attention to vegetation cover. In Adventdalen, community types form five groups of vegetation: (a) sparsely vegetated areas on dry subsoil, (b) sparsely vegetated areas on moist substrate, (c) densely vegetated areas on dry substrate, (d) densely vegetated areas on substrate and (e) areas of organic material. The period of 2011-2020 was analysed, and relations between climatic drivers were evaluated. The presented data support the idea of fast ongoing warming of the Svalbard terrestrial ecosystems.
Recent climatic changes, anthropogenic impacts and new infrastructure development across the Arctic may increase risks for terrestrial ecosystems. A wide range of anthropogenic impact factors are reported for the Arctic, such as air and marine pollution including plastic, black carbon deposition on snow, remnants from oil, gas, and mining operations, increased land use due to expanding industrial activities leading to habitat loss, and, last but not least, waste and pollution from tourism. Recently, satellite data has revealed the expansion of infrastructure and growing anthropogenic impacts throughout the Arctic. Regarding the effect of warming on plant biodiversity, both responses are reported, i.e. decreases and increases in the number of plant species forming communities. Air pollution may affect tundra environments and its vegetation in different ways. Black carbon from diesel engines, fires, and other combustion processes can settle on snow, decreasing its ability to reflect sunlight which causes faster melting and changes in water availability for plants. In areas close to settlements, the direct effects of anthropogenic pollutants on vegetation may play a role. In Svalbard, local anthropogenic sources of emission, such as burning fossil fuels in local coal power plants, vehicle exhaust and mining activities contribute to the pollution of the environment and interact with plants. Moreover, wastewater discharged by Longyearbyen into the fjords delivers heavy metals and other pollutants that represent a potential risk to marine algae.
The Arctic states face a broad spectrum of specific regional security issues centred around two complementary aspects, defending humans from extremes of nature (climate) and protecting the natural environment against damage caused by human activities (pollution). The first group of challenges encompasses extreme weather patterns, melting sea ice and permafrost, and rising sea levels. The second group includes various pollutants, including persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, plastics, a significant military and nuclear presence, industrial development, and shipping. In addition, hybrid threats, illegal activities, and the interests of non-Arctic states represent a new and emerging category of security challenges for the region. Most of these challenges are multiplying threats that do not respect borders or sectoral boundaries and require coordinated trans national action. Given the limited capacity of individual states to address security threats promptly and the trans-national nature of certain issues, regional cooperation is a prerequisite for achieving success. History shows us that during the Cold War, the most politically frozen time of all, the Arctic states, including the United States and the Soviet Union, were able to overcome their animosity and cooperate on environmental challenges. One of the outcomes of this cooperation was the establishment of the Arctic Council in 1996. Is it realistic to expect a similar development today? The Russian invasion of Ukraine has largely ended cooperation between Moscow and other Arctic countries. Can shared security challenges enhance cooperation in the region and beyond? How important are environmental issues for the states? Can Arctic science diplomacy be a useful approach to the improvement of relations? These are some of the research questions that this chapter addresses. The author also investigates mechanisms for cooperation in times of conflict and the role of international scientific cooperation in the Arctic. The chapter concludes with an exploration of possible future scenarios in the region.
Culture collections contain cyanobacterial and microalgal strains as type species taxonomical studies and future exploitation in basic and applied research. The Culture collection of experimental strains, isolated from cold environments, at the Institute of Botany CAS, T & rcaron;ebo & ncaron;, Czech Republic, is a working non-public culture collection, i.e., the strains are being isolated and used in experiments, but they are not available for sale. At present (June 2025), the culture collection contains 350 defined strains of cyanobacteria and microalgae isolated from Antarctica (168 strains), Arctic (148 strains), Europe (18 strains) and North America (14 strains). The origin of two strains is unknown. The strains originate from snow/glacier (17 strains), lacustrine (39 strains), hydro-terrestrial (24 strains), and terrestrial (72 strains) environments. It is planned to determine the original environment of the remaining 198 strains in the near future. From a taxonomical point of view, 153 strains belong to the Cyanophyceae class, 38 to the Trebouxiophyceae class, 32 to the Chlorophyceae class, 23 to the Klebsormidiophyceae class, 8 to the Zygnematophyceae class and 94 to the Xanthophyceae class. The Ulvophyceae and Bacillariophyceae classes are both represented by a single strain. In addition, methods of sampling, isolation, maintenance, and determination of strains are described.
Since February 2022, evolving political dynamics in the Arctic have increasingly challenged the academic credibility of the concept of Arctic exceptionalism. Russia's invasion of the Ukraine has significantly reshaped the region's geopolitical landscape, resulting in a marked decline in cooperation between Russia and the Western Arctic states. This erosion of collaboration has substantially hindered Russia's ability to advance its economic, military, and diplomatic ambitions in the Arctic, although certain initiatives, particularly energy-related, have continued under the revised conditions. Western sanctions have delayed and obstructed critical Russian infrastructure projects in the region, revealing a pronounced dependence on foreign technology. In the security sphere, NATO's enlargement through the inclusion of Finland and Sweden has shifted the regional balance of power. This empirical political development is fundamentally at odds with the trajectory that might be anticipated if international relations in the region adhered to the functional logic of Arctic exceptionalism. However, despite rising tensions, the prospect of military actions in the Arctic remains low, it is constrained by logistical limitations, economic interdependence, and the prevailing balance of power.
This article presents the results of a field-measured monitoring study on the structure and productivity of two widespread community types within the mountain tundra belt of the Subarctic (Kola Peninsula, Khibiny Mountains). The data cover the period 2000 to 2023, during which the mean annual air temperature increased by 2.2 degrees C. In 2023, the dwarf shrub community had an average aboveground phytomass of 908 g m-2 and an annual production of 128 g m-2, values 1.5-2 times higher than in the lichen community. The composition of aboveground phytomass was as follows - dwarf shrub community: 72% dwarf shrubs, 10% mosses, 18% lichens; lichen community: 32% dwarf shrubs, 6% mosses, 62% lichens. In the dwarf shrub community during the past two decades (2000-2023), the contribution of dwarf shrubs to the aboveground phytomass remained unchanged. However, a compositional change occurred: the proportion of evergreen dwarf shrubs nearly doubled, the moss component increased fivefold, while the lichen fraction decreased by a factor of 1.5. Aboveground phytomass increased by 22%, whereas annual production showed a slight decrease of 7%. The aboveground phytomass of the lichen community decreased by 15% over a twenty-year period. Its structural composition also changed: the moss contribution increased 21 times, while the proportion of lichens decreased by a factor of 1.1 in 2023. The results demonstrate a significant response of the Khibiny mountain tundra ecosystem to ongoing global warming during the study period. The rise in temperature at this stage of global climate change has led to an alteration in the structure of vegetation, namely an increased contribution of evergreen dwarf shrubs and mosses to the plant communities of the Khibiny Mountains.
Ice-free regions (oases) in East Antarctica have been recognized for their diverse environmental conditions of soil formation. Understanding the biogenic-abiogenic interactions, composition and dynamics of soil organic matter can provide insights into the resilience of Antarctic ecosystems in the face of environmental changes. Therefore, this study is aimed at the investigation of micromorphological features, biogeochemical properties and composition of soil organic matter across various scales in the soil and soillike bodies of Thala Hills, East Antarctica. The examined soils are typically characterized by shallow profiles, predominantly coarse textures, slightly acidic to nearly neutral pH levels, and very low organic carbon content. Soil horizons studied differed by content of total organic carbon (from 0.42% in the sub-surface horizons to 13.68% in the topsoil Histic horizon in a wind shelter) and nitrogen (from 0.025% to 1.89%). Organomineral interactions are primarily observed in the form of biofilms, which predominantly develop in wind-sheltered areas and rock cavities. Micromorphological analyses revealed a predominance of primary materials, which are significantly modified by cryogenic processes (seen by vertical mineral alignment, cracks, and numerous packing voids) and physical weathering, with minimal influence from chemical weathering. Microscopic examination of soil thin sections indicated that the microfabric of these soils is predominantly composed of coarse detrital skeleton with abundant voids, while soils generally exhibit a low proportion of fine earth material.
This study summarizes the lichen diversity in the Colesdalen area of Svalbard, where a total of 234 species are known. Notably, 112 of these lichen species are reported for the first time in this region. Among them, the newly recorded species are Arthonia granitophila, Ionaspis obtecta, Micarea denigrata, Poeltinula interjecta, Rhizocarpon infernulum, R. subgeminatum, Rinodina mniaroea var. cinnamomea, Sagedia zonata, Sarcogyne lapponica, which are new to Svalbard. Furthermore, Arthonia granitophila and Poeltinula interjecta are documented for the first time in the Arctic. Additionally, 27 species have been identified as new to Nordenski & ouml;ld Land (Central Spitsbergen). The ecological conditions of the Colesdalen area, including its unique microhabitats and substrate availability, significantly influence the lichen biodiversity and site-dependent vegetation composition. This research contributes to the knowledge of local biodiversity of lichens and highlights how certain species can thrive beyond their typical ranges due to specific environmental factors-substrate, altitude, anthropogenic impact, distance from glaciers, humidity. Approximately half of the identified species are known only from the study area or from a few locations on Svalbard. This highlights the specificity of the natural conditions of the study area as well as the complex interactions between natural ecosystems and human-modified environments, emphasizing the importance of further study and documentation of Arctic lichens.
Accurate prediction of variability of polar snowpack is central to understanding global climate change and its impacts on ecosystems, sea-level rise, and weather patterns. Traditional, physically based snowpack models commonly fail to capture full range of complexity that realistic snow dynamics can display, especially under extreme climate events. On the contrary, machine learning (ML) models can enhance predictive accuracy but lack interpretability and thus are challenging to apply in scientific contexts. This research proposes construction of explainable AI models for prediction of polar snow-pack, emphasizing how to interpret domain knowledge coupled with state-of-the-art techniques in AI. Physics-informed neural networks are used herein to embed physical laws, Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to represent spatial dependencies, and Recurent Neural Network (RNNs) for temporal sequences. Several post-hoc explanation techniques, such as SHAP and saliency maps, together with the development of causal inference models, are applied in such a way that the transparency and scientific basis of the models are preserved.
Spatiotemporal analysis of glaciological phenomena provides a robust assessment of a glacier's health. Glacier surface facies (GSF) are direct indicators of the state of snow and ice within a glacier. However, long-term analyses of GSF via optical satellite products presents challenges stemming from data availability, weather conditions, and variations in mapping methodologies. In this study we present the first decadal analysis of GSF in Svalbard using optical satellite data. Utilizing unsupervised classification on images of the Vestre Broggerbreen glacier from 2013 to 2023, we identify and quantify the variations between facies observed on the images and their classified spatial distributions. The identified facies comprise of snow, firn, glacier ice, and dirty ice, with a fifth thematic class of shadowed snow. In certain imagery, snow and firn are labelled as 'snow 1' and 'snow 2' due to the derived reflectance and appearance of firn differing from established patterns in the literature, while remaining spectrally distinct from snow. Our analysis suggests that shadowed snow induces the most misclassification in overall assessment of GSF. Shadowed snow and dirty ice produce convoluted spectral reflectance that in combination with the overall darkening of the glacier severely misrepresented firn, underreported dirty ice, and produced inaccurate maps. Spatially, dirty ice was classified with a lower distribution in 2023 (0.49 km2) than in 2013 (0.58 km2). Moreover, firn/snow 2 was classified as a larger area in 2023 (1.01 km2). These results indicate a pressing need to identify long-term trends affected by scene-to-scene distortions. Our future experiments involve multi-decadal supervised analyses of GSF in the for refinement of supraglacial monitoring with multispectral data.
