Global fish oil production has plateaued while salmonid aquaculture expands, creating urgent demand for sustainable alternative lipid sources. This study evaluated the effects of replacing dietary fish oil with canola oil, safflower oil, and their blends on growth performance, feed utilization, condition indices, and muscle fatty acid composition in juvenile Black Sea trout, Salmo labrax Pallas, 1814. Seven isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets (45% crude protein, 18% crude lipid) differing only in lipid source—fish oil (FO), safflower oil (SO), canola oil (CO), and their 50:50 binary and equal ternary blends—were fed to triplicate groups of juvenile Black Sea trout (initial weight 30.22 ± 0.19 g) for 90 days. Growth performance, feed utilization, condition indices, and fatty acid compositions of diets and white dorsal muscle were determined. Growth performance and feed utilization did not differ significantly among treatments (P > 0.05), confirming that complete fish oil replacement did not compromise growth performance. However, significant differences were observed in fat deposition rate, viscerosomatic index, and hepatosomatic index (P < 0.05). Muscle fatty acid profiles closely mirrored dietary composition: saturated and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA, DHA) declined while monounsaturated and n-6 fatty acids increased with increasing plant oil inclusion. The muscle n-3/n-6 ratio fell most sharply in the safflower oil group. Economic analysis revealed that complete plant oil substitution reduced feed costs by 12%–13% compared to the fish oil control. Both canola and safflower oils can effectively replace fish oil in Black Sea trout diets without compromising growth. Canola oil emerges as the more broadly balanced substitute, while safflower oil’s strong n-6 enrichment restricts its suitability to blended or finishing strategies.
Small tunas are economically important for Mediterranean fisheries. Yet they remain poorly assessed due to data limitations. This study provides the first quantitative stock assessment of little tunny, Euthynnus alletteratus (Rafinesque, 1810), and bullet tuna, Auxis rochei (Risso, 1810), in the central Mediterranean Sea (GSA 13) using two complementary data-limited methods. The Length-Based Bayesian Biomass (LBB) method was applied to length-frequency data collected in 2022 (408 E. alletteratus and 508 A. rochei ), and the CMSY++ method was applied to the official landings time series from 1996 to 2022. The results reveal contrasting stock statuses. Auxis rochei is critically overfished, with current biomass at only 8% of unexploited levels ( B / B 0 = 0.08) and extremely high fishing mortality ( F / M = 15). CMSY++ confirmed overfishing ( B / B MSY = 0.52; F / F MSY = 1.30). Length structure analysis revealed that 42% of the catch were immature juveniles (32.6 cm). In contrast, E. alletteratus is also overfished, albeit less severely ( B / B 0 = 0.25; F / M = 1.4). CMSY++ results ( B / B MSY = 0.75; F / F MSY = 1.39) and a low proportion of juveniles (2%) suggest a healthier demographic structure, although large spawners (>90 cm) are rare. Based on these findings, we recommend the following species-specific measures: for A. rochei , increase the minimum conservation reference sizes (MCRS) from 27 cm to the optimal 34 cm, and reduce fishing effort. For E. alletteratus , prohibit the landing of specimens measuring more than 80 cm, and increase the MCRS from 54 cm to 66 cm. This study demonstrates the feasibility of quantitatively assessing data-poor small tunas in the Mediterranean and provides essential baselines for their sustainable management.
A single specimen (41.9 mm SL) of Tomiyamichthys oni (Tomiyama, 1936), representing the family Gobiidae, was firstly recorded from Ulleung Island, Korea on 1 March 2025. It was characterized by clusters of irregular brown spots covering its body, and a black band on lower part of opercle extending forward to tip of chin. The species is morphologically similar to Tomiyamichthys elliotensis Allen, Erdmann et Dudgeon, 2023, but distinctly different in the presence of small, irregular brown spots on the body (absence these spots in T. elliotensis). In addition, T. oni was well distinguished from another four valid species in the genus Tomiyamichthys as determined by mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COI) sequence (546 bp) with genetic distances ranging from 0.130 to 0.252. In addition, this study reported a new northernmost record for the species at the latitude of 37°27'N. A Korean name ‘Geom-eun-tti-nun-se-u-mang-dug’ is herein proposed for the species.
A thorough study of target species, including the collection of data on their life-history traits, is essential for quantitative assessment in fishery management and conservation programs to reduce the vulnerability of populations subject to fishing pressure. This study aimed to analyze the size composition, length–weight relationships, condition factors, and catch volume of four of the most frequent and commercially valuable species caught by small–scale fisheries operating in the Mexican Priority Marine Region 4 of the northwestern Pacific. The presently reported study was based on bycatch from shrimp trawls and commercial catches, and the data were analyzed jointly and separately. Sampling was conducted to obtain length and weight data for four selected fish species: California halibut, Paralichthys californicus (Ayres, 1859); finescale triggerfish, Balistes polylepis Steindachner, 1876; bullseye puffer, Sphoeroides annulatus (Jenyns, 1842); and the spotted sand bass, Paralabrax maculatofasciatus (Steindachner, 1868). A total of 3215 fish individuals were studied, most of which corresponded to the spotted sand bass coming from bycatch. Size-frequency distributions differed among species, with bycatch dominated by smaller size classes and artisanal commercial fisheries capturing larger individuals, reflecting differential ontogenetic habitat use and fishing-gear selectivity. The length–weight parameter b ranged from 2.70 in the bullseye puffer to 2.94 in spotted sand bass, indicating variation among species associated with the presence of both juvenile and adult individuals in the samples; negative allometric growth was consistent across pooled groups, with length increasing proportionally more than biomass. Relative condition factors exceeding 1.0 suggest favorable somatic growth conditions for all species and the capacity to assimilate available energy over extended periods. Size at first capture ( L 50 ) varied among species and groups and differed from published estimates of size at sexual maturity, while S. annulatus and Paralichthys californicus contributed most substantially to total catches during the study period. Overall, this assessment of size composition, length–weight relationships, condition factors, and catch data for the most frequent and commercially valuable species in the Bahía Magdalena–Almejas lagoon system, based on both bycatch and commercial fisheries, provides useful information for evaluating potential fishing impacts and reducing the vulnerability of exploited populations within this marine priority region.
Approximately 25% of annual inland capture fish production in Türkiye is from pearl mullet, Alburnus tarichi (Güldenstädt, 1814), which is an endemic species to the Lake Van Basin. Therefore, sustainable utilization of pearl mullet stocks in the basin carries utmost importance for the livelihoods of fishers and food provisioning in the region. Conventionally, fishery of pearl mullet is carried out with trammel and mono-filament gillnets. However, to date, the effectiveness of multifilament gillnets was not put to the test. Therefore, this study, which was conducted in Lake Van between September 2022 and April 2023, employed six sets of monofilament and multifilament gillnets with mesh sizes of 22, 23, and 24 mm to investigate the selectivity of gillnets comparatively. The nets were laid at depths ranging from 8 to 60 m, and 45 samples were collected. The SELECT method was used to calculate the selectivity parameters of the samples. The most suitable model for monofilament gillnets was the Normal Scale model, and the optimum capture lengths were 22.29, 22.75, and 23.18 cm. In multifilament gillnets, the most suitable model was the lognormal model, and the optimum capture lengths were 21.01, 21.99, and 22.24 cm. In both net sets, the month with the highest catch per unit of effort was April, with values of 83.32 kg/100 m/day in monofilament gillnets and 27.83 kg/100 m/day in multifilament gillnets. The results of this study indicated that the most suitable mesh size for pearl mullet fishing with gillnets in Lake Van is 24 mm. For pearl mullet fishery in Lake Van, the use of 24 mm monofilament gillnets compared to multifilament gillnets is recommended due to their high capture efficiency.
A novel intersex individual of the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis Milne-Edwards, 1853, sampled from Nanjing, eastern China was described herein. The specimen exhibited a fully typical female external phenotype. Its abdomen retained the characteristic circular shape unique to normal females, and the ratios of all measured morphological traits were consistent with the national standards of China for female E. sinensis individuals. A pair of female gonopores was present on the fifth thoracic somite, with the second to fifth pairs of ovigerous pleopods bearing normal setae. Notably, male first gonopods (G1) were observed in this individual, whereas the second gonopods (G2) and penis were absent. Potential hormonal or environmental causes (e.g., IAG/CFSH imbalance, EDCs) underlying this sexual aberration were further discussed. The findings of this study enrich the biological data on intersex phenomena in crustaceans and provide a fundamental reference for exploring the sex differentiation mechanism and environmental adaptation of E. sinensis under habitat disturbance.
Misgurnus mohoity (Dybowski, 1869) is recorded for the first time from the Korean Peninsula based on specimens collected from South Korea. It is distinguished from other Korean Misgurnus by the following characteristics: 48–50 total vertebrae; 19–20 caudal vertebrae; 164–180 lateral line scales; a poleaxe-shaped lamina circularis with a shallow neckline at the base in mature males; and a slender, elongated caudal peduncle with a CPL/CPD (caudal peduncle length/caudal peduncle depth) ratio of > 1.7 and an LPC/DPA (the projected length from the posterior edge of the anal fin base to the base of the caudal fin to the projected length from the pelvic fin insertion point to the anterior edge of the anal fin base) ratio of > 1.1. Mitochondrial cytb gene analysis revealed that the Korean specimens form a monophyletic clade (100% bootstrap support) with populations from Russia, China, and North Korea, exhibiting a high genetic distance (K2P: 10.04%) from other Korean congeners. A new Korean name, “Ga-neun-mi-ggu-ri”, is proposed based on the slender and elongated shape of the body and caudal peduncle. These findings provide crucial biogeographical evidence for understanding the dispersal and differentiation of the genus Misgurnus in Northeast Asia.
Skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758), is an economically important pelagic species that supports small-scale fisheries in Palabuhanratu Bay, West Java, Indonesia. This study aimed to examine the relationship between physical oceanographic parameters {sea surface temperature (SST), salinity, sea surface height (SSH), and current speed} and biogeochemical parameters {chlorophyll-a (CHL), pH, and silicate} with skipjack catch per unit effort (CPUE) using a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) based on data collected during 2019–2023. The results indicate that variations in skipjack CPUE are associated with a combination of physical and biogeochemical oceanographic conditions. The best-performing model explained 70.7% of the deviance, with an adjusted R2 of 0.623 and an AIC (Akaike Information Criterion) value of 743.26. Response curves indicated that higher CPUE tended to be associated with lower sea surface temperature (marginally significant; P = 0.068), lower salinity, higher chlorophyll-a concentrations, and variation in pH, while several other oceanographic variables exhibited non-linear relationships with CPUE. Model selection results further showed that the model integrating both physical and biogeochemical parameters outperformed models based on either group of variables alone. These findings highlight the importance of considering multiple environmental factors simultaneously when examining CPUE variability in small-scale skipjack fisheries. However, the results represent statistical associations between environmental variability and fishery-dependent catch rates and should not be interpreted as definitive evidence of skipjack tuna habitat suitability.
Poecilopsetta colorata Günther, 1880 and Poecilopsetta praelonga Alcock, 1894, deep-sea flatfishes belonging to the family Poecilopsettidae (Teleostei, Pleuronectiformes), are recorded for the first time from Japan, based on two specimens of the former and one of the latter, all collected from the Pacific coast of southern Japan. The diagnostic characters of each species are reassessed. The former specimens, from the Enshu-nada Sea and Tosa Bay, were identified as P. colorata by a combination of the following characters: dorsal-fin rays 48–62; anal-fin rays 46–53; ocular-side pectoral-fin rays 9–12; lateral-line scales 90–124; body deep; eyes separated by flat scaled interorbital area; middle pectoral-fin rays on ocular side branched; and single large dark blotch on ocular-side pectoral fin. A second specimen from the Enshu-nada Sea was identified as P. praelonga , having the following diagnostic characters of that species: dorsal-fin rays 57–65; anal-fin rays 45–55; ocular-side pectoral-fin rays 6–11; lateral-line scales 91–111; body slender; eyes contiguous; all pectoral-fin rays simple on both sides; straight section of lateral line about three times length of lateral-line curve width; pectoral fin uniformly black. The specimens from the Enshu-nada Sea represent the northernmost records for each species, P. colorata and P. praelonga having been previously recorded only as far north as the South China Sea off Hong Kong, and from southern Taiwan, respectively. It is likely that the ocular-side head and body coloration of P. colorata and the caudal-fin coloration of P. praelonga are variable intraspecifically, whereas the presence or absence of branched ocular-side pectoral-fin rays is species-specific in Poecilopsetta . The presently reported specimens are likely to have been transported by the Kuroshio Current while at the pelagic larval stage, thereafter, settling near their collection sites, due to having remnants of blind-side black spots, which are distinct in larval and juvenile Poecilopsetta , but tend to disappear with growth.
Two species of cusk eels, Neobythites nanhaiensis Chen, Zhao, Yang, Zhang, He, Zhang, Wang et Zhong, 2026 and Grammonus robustus Smith et Radcliffe, 1913 are reported based on specimens collected from Nha Trang, Vietnam. The specimens of N. nanhaiensis represent the northernmost record of this species and the specimen of G. robustus fills the distribution gap between the Philippines and eastern Australia. Detailed descriptions of both species and sagittal otoliths are provided and compared to data of other specimens. Moreover, we found that the original description of N. nanhaiensis was partly based on damaged specimens (tail regenerated), making the counts of dorsal-, anal-, and caudal-fin rays, and vertebrae, and some measurements unreliable, and the true variation of this species remains unknown.
Specimens of marine ornamental fishes collected from western Sumatra, Indonesia, were examined and several noteworthy records are documented here. Apolemichthys xanthurus (Bennett, 1833), Centropyge flavipectoralis Randall et Klausewitz, 1977, Abudefduf caudobimaculatus Okada et Ikeda, 1939, and Siganus magnificus (Burgess, 1977) represent the first voucher-based records of these species from this region, and their distributional records are discussed. In addition, xanthochromic individuals of Epinephelus quoyanus (Valenciennes, 1830) and Paracanthurus hepatus (Linnaeus, 1766) are documented for the first time.
The South African bigeye dragonet, Synchiropus monacanthus Smith, 1935 (family Callionymidae), is reported for the first time from Indian waters based on six female specimens (68.2–104.5 mm SL) collected from trawl bycatch off Pudukkottai, southeastern India (Palk Bay). This record extends the known distribution of S. monacanthus eastward by approximately 2500 km from its previously documented range in the western Indian Ocean (South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Tanzania, Socotra Archipelago). The specimens were collected at a depth of approximately 100–150 m, which is shallower than the previously reported bathymetric range of 175–428 m for this species, providing new information on its habitat depth. Comparative morphological data are provided to distinguish S. monacanthus from its congener, Synchiropus lineolatus (Valenciennes, 1837), which is also recorded from Indian waters. This finding adds a second species of Synchiropus to the Indian marine ichthyofauna and highlights the value of examining deep-water trawl bycatch for documenting species distributions.
The rising cost and limited availability of fishmeal have prompted the search for sustainable protein alternatives in aquaculture feeds. This study evaluated the potential of shrimp head meal (SHM), a locally available byproduct of shrimp processing, as a substitute for fishmeal in practical diets for nursery-culture milkfish, Chanos chanos (Fabricius, 1775) fry. Five experimental diets were formulated with graded levels of SHM replacing sardine fishmeal (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) and fed to fry for eight weeks. Growth performance, feed utilization, carcass composition, and nutrient retention were assessed. Results showed that partial replacement of fishmeal with SHM at 25% supported growth, feed conversion efficiency, protein efficiency ratio, and survival rates comparable to the control diet. At higher inclusion levels (≥50%), significant reductions in weight gain, feed efficiency, and survival were observed, although carcass protein content increased, while lipid deposition declined. Protein retention was enhanced at moderate SHM levels, whereas lipid retention decreased consistently with increasing inclusion. These findings suggest that SHM can effectively replace up to 25% of fishmeal in milkfish fry diets, offering a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable alternative. However, higher inclusion levels (≥50%) were associated with reduced growth performance, feed conversion efficiency, and survival, indicating possible limitations in the nutritional balance of SHM when used as a major protein source. The study highlights the potential of SHM as a locally sourced feed ingredient and recommends further research on processing methods to improve its nutritional value and applicability in aquaculture.
Naujan white goby, Glossogobius aureus Akihito et Meguro, 1975, an economically important freshwater fish native to Naujan Lake, Oriental Mindoro, has previously been reported to harbor the parasitic copepod Lernaea cf. cyprinacea Linnaeus, 1758 in captivity; however, a year-round epidemiological assessment in the wild has not yet been conducted. This study assessed 1247 fish collected from Naujan Lake from May 2024 to April 2025 to determine prevalence, mean intensity, mean abundance, length–weight relationship, and condition factor in both infected and uninfected individuals. A total of 180 infected G. aureus cases were recorded (14.4% prevalence), with infections occurring year-round, peaking from May to June during the warmest ambient temperatures in Naujan, and declining in cooler periods from October to February. Parasite abundance differed significantly between seasons and increased with host size, with larger individuals harboring higher parasite loads. Spatial distribution heatmaps indicated that L. cf. cyprinacea predominantly attached to the dorsal and pectoral fins across seasons, with increased occurrence on the gill and opercular regions during the wet season, i.e., well-vascularized and protected sites that facilitate attachment and feeding. Both infected and uninfected G. aureus exhibited negative allometric growth (b < 3) over seasonal periods, with infected individuals showing significant variation in weight relative to length. Parasitic infection may influence host growth and body condition, with greater growth variability during the dry season and changes in condition potentially linked to environmental stress and the host’s reproductive activity. The year-round occurrence of infection, with peak levels during warmer months, has important implications for the collection of G. aureus broodstock, a species currently being developed for aquaculture. Collecting broodstock smaller than 10 cm during cooler months may reduce parasite transmission under culture conditions. Overall, these findings provide baseline information for parasite management and support the development of health management strategies for emerging G. aureus culture in freshwater systems. This study represents the first year-round epidemiological assessment in a tropical wild freshwater goby population in Southeast Asia.
We studied the morphological variation of the chain dogfish, Scyliorhinus retifer (Garman, 1881), to demonstrate sexual dimorphism based on 15 adult males {434–557 mm total length (TL)} and 10 adult females (437–556 mm TL) captured in the southern Gulf of Mexico. We took 60 morphological measurements, 12 of which showed significant differences between the sexes. Analysis of dermal denticle (DDs) density and shape showed variation by sex in the four regions: dorsal (females: 105–353 mm–2; males: 112–530 mm–2), ventral (females: 142–456 mm–2; males: 168–488 mm–2), lateral (females: 93–396 mm–2; males: 96–380 mm–2), and anterior dorsal (females: 209–490 mm–2; males: 254–534 mm–2). There were also significant differences within the same sex in the length of the DDs of the dorsal region, the length of the DDs of the anterior dorsal region, the width of the DDs of the anterior dorsal region, and the length and width of the DDs of the lateral region.
This study compared the growth performance, feed conversion efficiency, and genetic diversity of gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata Linnaeus, 1758, of Atlantic and Mediterranean origin reared under the same cage farming conditions for 15 months. Genetic variability was assessed using microsatellite and RAPD markers between groups. The results showed that the Atlantic group tended to exhibit higher final weight, specific growth rate (SGR), and improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) than the Mediterranean group. However, although these differences were initially significant (P < 0.05), they were not statistically significant after False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction (adjusted P > 0.05). Survival rates were similar across the groups. Genetic analyses revealed high within-population diversity in both groups, with moderate differentiation between Atlantic and Mediterranean origins, indicating a distinct but not strongly divergent genetic background. Overall, the results suggest a consistent trend toward improved growth performance in Atlantic seabream under the tested conditions; however, due to the lack of statistical significance after correction, cautious interpretation of the results is required. Further multi-environmental studies are required to confirm whether these trends reflect the true genetic advantages relevant to aquaculture and selective breeding programs.
This study investigated the effects of adding glandless cottonseed kernel powder (GCKP) to the diets of juvenile goldfish, Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758), as an alternative plant protein source to fishmeal, examining its impact on growth performance and feed consumption. Four experimental groups were established, including control and treatments with 5%, 7.5%, and 10% GCKP, across 12 aquariums in 3 replications. Each aquarium housed 15 juvenile goldfish, totaling 180 fish, which were fed twice daily under a controlled feeding regime for a 90-day period. The initial mean live weight of the fish was 1.25 ± 0.03 g. At the end of the trial, the group with 5% GCKP reached the highest mean live weight of 3.722 ± 0.218 g, followed by the 10% GCKP group with 3.683 ± 0.219 g, the control group with 3.666 ± 0.253 g, and the 7.5% GCKP group with 3.422 ± 0.211 g (P > 0.05). Statistical analysis found no significant (P > 0.05) differences in live weight gain, specific growth rates, survival rates, feed consumption values, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) beteen the control group and the GCKP groups (5%, 7.5%, and 10%). The findings indicate that GCKP can be safely included in the diets of juvenile goldfish at levels up to 10% without any adverse effects on growth performance, feed utilization parameters, and survival rates.
In the summer of 2024, an unrecognized mullet species was reported to occur in considerable abundance in the shallow areas of the southeastern Caspian Sea. Since accurate species identification is essential for ecological monitoring, 65 specimens were collected using gillnets in late summer and early autumn 2024, and their morphological traits were examined to identify the species. The specimens correspond to the abu mullet, Planiliza abu (Heckel, 1843), a member of the family Mugilidae native to the subtropical waters of southern Iran (the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman). Additional surveys indicated that this species has spread into some inland ecosystems as well as the coastal areas of the Caspian Sea. Therefore, this paper reports the first record of an established population of abu mullet in the southern Caspian region, expanding the species’ known distribution northward toward a cold temperate climate, beyond its previously known range in southern Iran. The considerable occurrence rate in mullet catches, good body condition (CF > 1), large size (length and weight), and age of the collected specimens from the coasts of the southeastern Caspian Sea allow us to confidently state that this species has established a self-sustaining population in this sea, with the potential to successfully adapt to Caspian environmental conditions. Ongoing investigations are expected to reveal additional occurrences of abu mullet in the Iranian waters of the Caspian Sea.
The Benguela hake, Merluccius polli Cadenat, 1950, is a demersal species typically distributed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, ranging from Angola to Mauritania. This study reports the first confirmed records of M. polli in the Gulf of Cádiz (NE Atlantic), suggesting a northward expansion of this tropical-affinity species. Two specimens were caught by commercial trawlers in 2022: one (47 cm TL) on 17 February, and a second (62 cm TL) on 27 July. Both individuals were identified based on meristic characters and caudal fin pigmentation. To contextualize these findings, we analyzed fisheries auction data (IDAPES) from 2000 to 2024. While M. polli is a new occurrence in the local wild ichthyofauna, it is commercially abundant in the region because it is landed in Spanish ports by national vessels operating in Northwest African fishing grounds. Analysis of recent sales notes (2022–2024) confirms that M. polli constitutes the dominant fraction (>95%) of the “black hakes” caught in African fishing grounds, which were historically pooled with Merluccius senegalensis Cadenat, 1950 in fishery statistics. Economic analysis reveals that black hakes maintain a stable, lower-price market niche compared to the local European hake, Merluccius merluccius (Linnaeus, 1758). These findings support the trend of tropicalization in the Gulf of Cádiz and highlight the importance of accurate species identification in commercial landings.
The complete mitochondrial genome of Acheilognathus imberbis Günther, 1868, a small freshwater fish inhabiting tributaries of the Yangtze and Yellow River systems, was sequenced and characterized. The circular mitogenome spans 16 576 base pairs, containing 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, 2 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, and a non-coding control region. Nucleotide composition analysis revealed an AT-rich genome (A + T = 58.93%) with distinct guanine deficiency (15.88% G content), consistent with a typical vertebrate mitogenome bias. To resolve debated phylogenetic relationships within Acheilognathinae, we performed phylogenetic analysis using concatenated sequences of 13 PCGs from 37 representative species. Results confirmed the monophyly of Acheilognathinae, which diverged into two primary clades: Acheilognathus and the Tanakia–Rhodeus complex. Notably, the monophyletic status of Rhodeus received limited nodal support, suggesting potential taxonomic revisions. Pairwise genetic distances (Tamura–Nei model) ranged from 0.0071 to 0.2600 across the subfamily. Through homology analysis, some Acheilognathinae fishes are clustered together, and the genetic distance is much less than 0.0406, suggesting re-evaluation of their classification criteria. Positive selection analysis based on the ND2 gene using site models revealed no statistically significant codon positions under positive selection. This mitogenomic resource advances molecular systematics and evolutionary studies in Acheilognathinae fishes.
