Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of motivational interviewing (MI) in reducing unmet reproductive health needs among women with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Methods: This triple-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted in 2023 with confirmed HPV infection attending a women's clinic in Iran. Participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group receiving five weekly individual MI sessions or a control group receiving routine education. Reproductive health needs were assessed at baseline and five weeks after the intervention using a validated questionnaire. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to compare post-intervention outcomes after adjusting for baseline scores. Results: Sixty-two women were included. Baseline characteristics were similar between groups. Compared with the control group, women receiving MI showed significantly lower total reproductive health needs scores after the intervention ( P <0.001), with a large effect size (partial η 2 =0.642). Significant improvements were observed across all 12 domains, particularly in psychological health education, male involvement in reproductive health, and women's empowerment. Conclusion: MI effectively reduced unmet reproductive health needs among women with HPV infection and may be integrated into routine sexual and reproductive healthcare to enhance counseling, psychological support, and patient empowerment. Study registration: The trial was registered with the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials: IRCT20230531058348N1.
Objective: To investigate whether the timing of assisted hatching (AH) independently influences blastocyst euploidy after adjustment for maternal age and blastocyst morphology. Methods: A prospective study was conducted on embryos undergoing preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) biopsy. PGT-A was performed using paired-end next-generation sequencing and PGT-A outcomes were analyzed both as binary (euploid vs non-euploid) and as three distinct categories (euploid, mosaic, and aneuploid). Results: A total of 612 embryos were included, comprising 301 embryos with day-3 assisted hatching and 311 embryos with day-5 assisted hatching. In binary analysis, the euploidy rate was higher in the day-5 group than in the day-3 group (32.5% vs 24.3%; crude OR =1.50, 95% CI : 1.05-2.14). However, when chromosomal outcomes were categorized into three groups (euploid, mosaic, and aneuploid), no statistically significant difference was observed between groups ( P =0.08). Mosaic rates (36.5% vs 33.1%, P =0.37) and aneuploidy rates (39.2% vs 34.4%, P =0.22) were also comparable. In multivariable analysis, assisted hatching timing was not independently associated with euploidy (adjusted OR =1.36; 95% CI: 0.92-1.97). Good blastocyst morphology (adjusted OR =2.48) and maternal age ≥35 years (adjusted OR =0.53) were identified as independent predictors. Conclusion: These findings indicate that assisted hatching timing does not independently affect embryo chromosomal status, including mosaicism and aneuploidy, while maternal age and blastocyst morphology remain the primary determinants of blastocyst euploidy.
Objective: To systematically map and evaluate the laboratory, clinical, and neonatal outcomes of Piezo-assisted intracytoplasmic sperm injection (Piezo ICSI) compared to conventional ICSI in human assisted reproduction. Methods: A scoping review was conducted according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was performed for studies published up to March 11, 2026, that compared Piezo ICSI with conventional ICSI and reported at least one laboratory, clinical, or neonatal outcome in humans. Results: Ten studies were identified, including one randomized controlled trial and nine non-randomized studies. Piezo ICSI generally showed improved laboratory outcomes, specifically improved oocyte survival and fertilization rates, with some evidence of enhanced embryo development. Clinical outcomes were less consistent: while several studies suggested improved clinical pregnancy and live birth rates, others, including a multicenter trial, reported no statistically significant benefits. Only three studies reported neonatal data, which showed no increase in adverse outcomes despite the limited scope. Conclusion: Current evidence suggests that Piezo ICSI offers reproducible laboratory advantages, particularly for women of advanced maternal age or with poor prognosis. However, its definitive clinical and neonatal impacts remain inconclusive. Further large-scale, well-designed multicenter trials with long-term follow-up of offspring are required before recommending Piezo ICSI for routine clinical practice.
Embryo culture is a critical determinant of success in assisted reproductive technology (ART). Conventional incubation (CI) systems have long been the standard for supporting embryo development. Still, their reliance on periodic morphological assessments disrupts stable culture conditions and limits embryo evaluation to static observations. The introduction of time-lapse incubation (TLI) has addressed these challenges by enabling uninterrupted monitoring, providing continuous morphokinetic data, and supporting algorithm-driven embryo selection. This narrative review compares CI and TLI approaches, examining their principles, strengths, limitations, and reported clinical outcomes. While TLI has demonstrated advantages in laboratory workflow efficiency and embryo assessment, evidence regarding its impact on live birth rates remains inconsistent. Moreover, challenges related to high costs, accessibility in resource-limited settings, and ethical considerations warrant careful evaluation. Future directions point toward integrating artificial intelligence, non-invasive molecular profiling, and personalized embryo culture strategies to further enhance reproductive outcomes. A balanced appraisal of current evidence is essential to guide the responsible adoption of TLI within clinical practice.
Objective: To evaluate chromosomal abnormalities associated with recurrent pregnancy loss and to emphasise the role of cytogenetic analysis and genetic counselling in pregnancy planning. Methods: A cytogenetic observational study conducted at a tertiary care cytogenetics laboratory in Eastern India involving couples with a history of recurrent pregnancy loss. Detailed clinical and family histories were obtained from all couples. Peripheral blood samples were collected, and conventional karyotyping was performed using standard cytogenetic techniques. Chromosomal abnormalities identified were documented, and genetic counselling was provided based on the findings. Results: Both numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities, including trisomies, monosomies, translocations, deletions, duplications, and inversions, were identified. Inherited as well as sporadic chromosomal rearrangements were observed, highlighting the significant contribution of genetic factors to recurrent pregnancy loss. Conclusions: Genetic abnormalities are an important cause of recurrent pregnancy loss and may be overlooked when focusing only on non-genetic factors. Cytogenetic evaluation, along with appropriate genetic counselling, aids in identifying underlying chromosomal causes and supports couples in informed pregnancy planning.
Objective: To investigate the time-dependent relationship between sperm plasma membrane integrity (sperm viability) and sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF) following semen liquefaction and incubation at room temperature. Methods: Liquefied semen samples from 30 individuals were diluted with sperm medium and incubated at room temperature for 0, 2, 6, and 24 hours. Results: Sperm viability and SDF were assessed at each time point. Viability declined exponentially over time ( R 2 =0.988), while SDF increased logarithmically ( R 2 =0.989). When the corresponding trend lines were plotted together, a crossover point was observed at approximately 2 hours post-liquefaction; at this time, both viability and SDF values exceeded the reference thresholds typically established when samples are analysed immediately after liquefaction. The decline in sperm viability during the first 6 hours of incubation was significantly more rapid than the increase in SDF. Conclusion: These findings support the hypothesis that loss of sperm plasma membrane integrity may precede and contribute to increased SDF. The potential clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
Exosomes are a distinct subset of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that have emerged as key regulators of intercellular communication. These vesicles, secreted by a wide array of cell types, are enclosed by a lipid bilayer and transport a diverse collection of biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, messenger RNAs (mRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs), reflecting the physiological or pathological condition of their source cells. The current review presents a detailed and comprehensive analysis of the biological processes involved in the formation of exosomes, together with their molecular composition, structure, and functions. The review also focuses on the increasing importance of exosomes in recent biomedical studies, especially in relation to their potential uses in the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases, such as cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, and diseases affecting the reproductive system. In particular, the review highlights the therapeutic relevance of exosomes in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), where they modulate inflammation, oxidative stress, and hormonal imbalance, contributing to ovarian dysfunction. The review also discusses established and emerging techniques for exosome isolation and characterisation, as well as recent technological advancements to enhance isolation efficiency and specificity. Finally, it evaluates the translational potential of exosomes as diagnostic biomarkers and drug delivery vectors. Additionally, their role as nanoscale carriers with high biocompatibility and targeting potential further strengthens their applicability in precision medicine, while critically examining existing limitations and future directions for their clinical application.
Spermatozoa detection and motility assessment in the vaginal cavity are important biological indicators used in forensic investigations of sexual intercourse. The persistence and motility of spermatozoa in the vagina may help estimate the approximate timing of sexual intercourse during medicolegal examinations[1]. However,the vaginal microenvironment can be influenced by several physiological and pathological factors,including infections that may alter sperm survival and motility.
Mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) has emerged as a disruptive frontier in reproductive medicine to address the challenges of advanced maternal age (AMA) and diminished ovarian reserve (DOR). These conditions are primarily driven by mitochondrial dysfunction, which leads to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion, oxidative damage, and increased embryonic aneuploidy. Heterologous techniques, such as maternal spindle transfer (MST) and pronuclear transfer (PNT), have demonstrated high clinical efficacy, with studies reporting fertilization rates up to 88.4% and significantly improved blastocyst formation in patients with poor prognoses. While these methods show promise, autologous strategies utilizing stem cell derived mitochondria offer an alternative to maintain full genetic relatedness and avoid the ethical complexities of "three-parent" embryos. However, MRT remains an investigational procedure globally due to critical safety concerns, including mitochondrial "reversion" where maternal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) regains dominance and potential mitonuclear incompatibility. In Vietnam, where infertility affects approximately 7.7% of couples, there is a rising demand for such interventions despite significant gaps in national data and specific regulatory frameworks. Establishing a strategic roadmap that includes a national AMA/DOR database and modernized legal guidelines is essential to ensure the safe and ethical integration of MRT into Vietnam’s clinical landscape.
Objective:To identify the barriers and facilitators in the identification and management of high-risk pregnancies in India. Methods:A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted from the inception of database till 27 March 2024,using predefined keywords and search terms,including"high risk pregnancy,""identification,""management,""barrier,""challenge,""facilitator,""enabler,"and"India,"combined using Boolean operators(AND/OR).Only studies published in English were included.Screening was conducted using Rayyan software.Data were extracted into structured tables and synthesized using a qualitative thematic approach to identify key barriers and facilitators in the identification and management of high-risk pregnancies. Results:A total of 144 publications were identified.After screening based on eligibility criteria,21 studies were finally included in the review.The included studies highlighted multiple barriers in the identification and management of high-risk pregnancies,including knowledge and awareness gaps among women and healthcare providers,inconsistent clinical management,and inadequate infrastructure.Financial constraints and cultural factors further added to the challenges.Women in tribal and rural areas faced additional barriers such as geographical isolation,lack of transportation,and limited access to specialized maternal healthcare.Facilitators identified in the literature included social support networks,the role of community health workers in bridging gaps between facilities and communities,and targeted education programs.Improved health literacy,standardized clinical protocols,and tailored management strategies were also reported as important facilitators. Conclusions:This review highlights the importance of strengthening healthcare infrastructure and addressing the identified barriers comprehensively to improve maternal and fetal outcomes.Enhancing awareness,empowering community health workers,and adopting standardized management protocols can contribute significantly to better identification and management of high-risk pregnancies in India.
Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) incubation on embryo developmental outcomes in intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles involving low-quality sperm. Methods: Sixty-six couples undergoing ICSI were enrolled in a prospective randomised study conducted at Halim Fertility Center, Indonesia between January and August 2023. Male with severe oligoasthenoteratozoospermia were randomised into two groups. Following density gradient centrifugation, samples in the PRP group were incubated with autologous PRP for one hour prior to ICSI, whereas the non-PRP group underwent standard processing without PRP exposure. Baseline characteristics and assisted reproductive technology outcomes between two groups were compared. The primary outcome was the blastocyst formation rate, while secondary outcomes included fertilisation rate, cleavage rate, and blastocyst quality. Results: A total of 66 couples were included, with 33 couples in each group. Participants’ demographics and semen parameters did not differ significantly between the two groups. The PRP group demonstrated a higher fertilisation rate than the non-PRP group (84.1% vs. 78.2%), but the difference was not statistically significant (P=0.38). The PRP group showed significantly higher cleavage rates (98.9% vs. 95.0%; P=0.03) and blastocyst formation rates (56.7% vs. 46.6%; P=0.006) compared to the non-PRP group. Additionally, the PRP group exhibited a higher proportion of good-quality blastocysts (44.8% vs. 41.2%; P=0.01) and a lower proportion of poor-quality blastocysts (22.1% vs. 27.8%; P=0.03). Conclusions: PRP incubation prior to ICSI in severe oligoasthenoteratozoospermia cases improves cleavage rates, blastocyst formation, and embryo quality. PRP may be a promising adjunct to optimise ICSI outcomes in male factor infertility. Study registration: This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with the registration number NCT07579858.
Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α),a pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokine,plays a crucial role in orchestrating immune responses at the maternal-foetal interface. Excessive TNF-α expression can result in compromised implantation,defective placentation,and ultimately miscarriage. Moreover,TNF-α stimulates the release of other inflammatory mediators,creating a feedback loop that exacerbates tissue damage[1]. Despite these insights,limited studies have evaluated TNF-α levels in early pregnancy as a predictive marker in Indonesian populations,particularly in Aceh.Thus,this research aims to explore the relationship between first-trimester TNF-α levels and miscarriage,offering potential clinical utility in early pregnancy risk assessment.
Objective:To identify barriers and future strategies for establishing fertility preservation in developing countries. Methods:A systematic literature search was conducted to identify studies/articles reporting in English on the barriers and strategies of fertility preservation in the developing countries.The literature search was conducted in PubMed,Cochrane Library,Scopus,and Google Scholar using search terms"challenges","strategies","fertility preservation",and"developing countries"to identify relevant sources from 2019 to 2024 applicable to current updates on fertility preservation. Results:A total of 34 studies were included in the analysis.Barriers were identified on healthcare providers and patients.Moreover,it could also be categorized as the backbone of an established fertility preservation center,which is an accessible assisted reproductive technology(ART)center.Without an established ART center,maintaining and utilizing the fertility preservation center would be challenging.Lack of awareness was another main barrier identified among healthcare providers.From the patient's perspective,the main barriers identified were the lack of financial support for fertility preservation programs and the awareness of fertility preservation programs.Policy,sociocultural,religious,knowledge,access to service,competency,and attitude were the other barriers identified.Few studies addressed strategies.Several strategies were identified,including improving access to ART facilities,enhancing financial support and policy for targeted patients undergoing fertility preservation,and increasing knowledge and awareness of healthcare providers and patients.However,further investigation is warranted. Conclusions:Several barriers have been identified for fertility preservation in developing countries.Therefore,corresponding strategies were proposed to specifically address them.
Objective:To compare pregnancy outcomes between a hyaluronic acid(HA)-enriched transfer medium and a conventional HA-free transfer medium in frozen embryo transfer cycles. Methods:We conducted a retrospective cohort study at Hung Vuong Hospital including frozen embryo transfer(FET)cycles performed between May 2023 and February 2025.Cycles were classified according to the transfer medium used:HA-enriched EmbryoGlue(EG)versus Continuous Single Culture-NX Complete(CSCM-NXC).Outcomes included positive human chorionic gonadotropin(hCG),clinical pregnancy,ongoing pregnancy,live birth,and pregnancy loss. Results:A total of 840 FET cycles were analyzed(EG,n=445;CSCM-NXC,n=395).Pregnancy outcomes were comparable between groups.Use of EG was not associated with higher rates of positive hCG(40.67%vs.41.77%)or live birth(27.87%vs.28.86%).Adjusted analyses similarly showed that transfer medium type was not associated with positive hCG[adjusted odds ratios(a OR)0.92,95%CI 0.69-1.22]or live birth(a OR 0.92,95%CI 0.67-1.25). Conclusions:In this retrospective cohort,use of an HA-enriched transfer medium was not associated with improved pregnancy outcomes in FET cycles.
Objective:To estimate the pooled prevalence rate of different types of abortion and the most important related factors of abortion in Iran based on a systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods:This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted on the Iranian studies during the February 1,2012 to December 31,2024.Abortion prevalence and its influencing factors were evaluated.Relevant keywords were used to find eligible studies in Web of Science,PubMed,Google Scholar,Scopus,Science-Direct and SID databases.Due to high heterogeneity in included studies,random-effects model was utilized to estimate the pooled estimated of abortion and its subgroups. Results:Out of 231 reviewed articles,only 11 articles on 24 429 women were finally included.The pooled prevalence of induced abortion,spontaneous abortion,legal abortion and overall abortion was estimated as 7.65%(95%CI 4.24 to 11.95),5.92%(95%CI 0.24 to 18.32),1.66%(95%CI 0.83 to 2.76)and 7.23%(95%CI 1.07 to 18.22),respectively. Conclusions:Abortion is a worldwide major public health problem even in Iran and related to different socioeconomic and psychosocial factors.Its prevalence in Iran is high and it remains as reproductive health concern in Iran due to low fertility rate and oncoming up down population growth.
Objective: To investigate the potential of oral probiotics to improve sperm motility and decrease DNA fragmentation in men diagnosed with asthenozoospermia. Methods: Men diagnosed with asthenozoospermia, aged between 18 and 40 years, were randomly assigned to receive probiotic or placebo for 10 weeks. Sperm parameters (count, motility, and morphology) and seminal fluid biochemical markers were assessed using light microscopy and Diff-Quik staining. Intracellular reactive oxygen species levels were measured using the malondialdehyde (MDA) technique, while DNA fragmentation index (DFI) was evaluated through acidic aniline blue staining. Data from both groups were compared to determine the effects of probiotic supplementation. Results: Sixteen men were included. The probiotic group (n=8) showed a significant increase in total sperm motility (P<0.001) and progressive motility (P=0.003) compared to the placebo group (n=8). Additionally, sperm count in the probiotic group was significantly higher than in the placebo group, although other sperm parameters did not show significant changes. Notably, levels of MDA (P=0.027) and DFI (P=0.004) were significantly reduced in the probiotic group, indicating a decrease in oxidative stress and DNA damage. Conclusions: Probiotic supplementation effectively enhances sperm quality by mitigating oxidative stress and reducing DNA damage, thereby improving sperm motility in men with asthenozoospermia.
Objective: To identify predictors of pregnancy and live birth outcomes in assisted reproductive technology (ART) cycles based on patient characteristics, hormonal profile, and embryo transfer variables. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included 50 fresh in vitro fertilization (IVF)/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles selected from ART participants at a single tertiary ART center. Controlled ovarian stimulation was performed using recombinant follicle stimulating hormone (rFSH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist, and menotropins; oocyte retrieval occurred 36 h after trigger and embryo transfer was performed on day 3 or 5. Outcomes (chemical pregnancy, ongoing pregnancy, abortion, live birth) were compared across groups stratified by maternal age, antral follicle count (AFC), anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), baseline luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2) at trigger, and endometrial thickness. Multivariate regression was used to identify independent predictors of live birth. Results: A total of 124 ART patients were screened during the study period, of whom 50 participants meeting the eligibility criteria were included in the final analysis. The median age of the participants was 35.8 years [interquartile range (IQR) 32.5–39.6]. The median AFC was 8 (IQR 4–14), AMH level was 1.4 ng/mL (IQR 0.7–2.9), and the median endometrial thickness at embryo transfer was 10.2 mm (IQR 9.0-11.3). Chemical, ongoing, abortion, and live birth rates were 62%, 32%, 12%, and 16%, respectively. Younger maternal age (<35 years), higher AFC (>12), AMH 1–4 ng/mL, and endometrial thickness >10 mm were associated with more favorable pregnancy outcomes. In multivariate analysis, higher baseline LH (β=0.089; 95% CI 0.017–0.162; P=0.02) and greater endometrial thickness (β=0.145; 95% CI 0.011–0.278; P=0.04) independently predicted live birth, whereas age, AFC, AMH, and E2 did not. Conclusions: Maternal age, ovarian reserve markers, LH levels, and endometrial thickness collectively influence ART outcomes. Baseline LH and endometrial receptivity are key independent predictors of live birth and may guide individualized treatment strategies.
Objective: To investigate the impact of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels on the outcomes of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles in women of advanced age and also to explore the effect of age on the ICSI results in patients with low AMH levels. Methods: This retrospective cohort study involved 143 infertile couples undergoing ICSI cycles at a fertility clinic in Iran from November 2021 to November 2023. Women aged <37 years with AMH <1 ng/mL and those aged ≥37 years were included. A standardized ovarian stimulation protocol was followed, leading to oocyte retrieval and ICSI on mature oocytes. Key oocyte quality indexes, including the maturation rate, fertilization rate, and embryo quality metrics, were evaluated. Poisson regression analyses were also employed to investigate the association between AMH levels and oocyte quality parameters in the advanced age groups, as well as the association between age and oocyte quality parameters in patients with low AMH. Results: We analyzed 143 ICSI cycles from 143 infertile couples. The mean ages of the women and their partners were (38.2±4.7) years and (40.6±5.9) years, respectively, with a median (IQR) AMH level of 0.7 (0.4–2.0) ng/mL. Younger women with low AMH levels (<1 ng/mL) showed significantly better outcomes in terms of the number of ME oocytes [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.89, 95% CI 1.31-2.71; P=0.001], fertilized (2PN) oocytes (aOR 1.97, 95% CI 1.36-2.86; P<0.001), embryo number (aOR 2.16, 95% CI 1.44-3.24; P<0.001), and embryos suitable for freezing (aOR 2.88, 95% CI 1.80-4.61; P<0.001) compared to advanced-age women. Furthermore, among women of advanced age, those with normal AMH levels exhibited a significantly higher number of ME oocyte (aOR 3.55, 95% CI 2.31-5.44; P<0.001), fertilized (2PN) oocytes (aOR 3.54, 95% CI 2.29-5.49; P<0.001), embryo number (aOR 3.89, 95% CI 2.48-6.10; P<0.001), and embryos suitable for freezing (aOR 4.75, 95% CI 2.79-8.09; P<0.001) compared to those with low AMH levels. Conclusions: AMH level is a significant predictor of oocyte and embryo number and quality in infertile women of advanced age undergoing ICSI cycles. Our findings suggest that maternal age markedly impacts the quality of oocytes and embryos in low AMH-level patients.
Objective:To evaluate and compare coagulation and hematological parameters in hypertensive and normotensive pregnant women. Methods:This present cross-sectional study was carried out in the Departments of Pathology and Obstetrics&Gynaecology at Dr.D.Y.Patil Medical College,Hospital&Research Centre,Pimpri,Pune,India from September 2023 to March 2025.Hematological parameters[platelet count,mean platelet volume(MPV),platelet distribution width(PDW)]were analyzed using an automated hematology analyzer,while coagulation parameters[prothrombin time(PT)/international normalised ratio,activated partial thromboplastin time(aPTT),and D-dimer]were assessed by standard automated assays.Results were compared between normotensive and hypertensive groups and correlated with disease severity. Results:The study included 212 antenatal females,with 106 normotensive pregnant women and 106 hypertensive women.Hypertensive women include cases of gestational hypertension(n=55);mild preeclampsia(n=39),and severe preeclampsia(n=12).A significant progressive decrease in platelet count and significant increases in MPV,PDW,PT,aPTT,and D-dimer levels were associated with increasing severity of pregnancy-induced hypertension(P<0.001).Women with severe preeclampsia had the lowest mean platelet counts and the highest coagulation parameter values compared to women with gestational hypertension,mild preeclampsia,and normotensive pregnancies.These findings indicate enhanced platelet activation,endothelial dysfunction,and activation of the coagulation-fibrinolytic system with worsening disease severity. Conclusions:Significant hematologic and coagulation abnormalities were present in women with pregnancy-induced hypertension.For better maternal-fetal outcomes and early management,routine monitoring is essential.
Objective: To investigate the sterilizing potential of zinc gluconate, calcium chloride (CaCl2) and cadmium chloride (CdCl2) following a single intratesticular administration in adult male rats. Methods: 60 adult male Wistar albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) weighing 160-200 g and aged 5-6 months randomly received a single intratesticular injection of normal saline (Group A), zinc gluconate 13.3 mg/mL plus L-Arginine (Group B), 20% CaCl2 (Group C), and CdCl2 0.5 mg/kg body weight plus ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (Group D), respectively, along the entire route from the caudoventral aspect of each testis. They were euthanized up to 180 days to evaluate reproductive tract toxicology. Results: The reproductive organ weights were markedly reduced, with testes severely atrophied in group B, pea-sized and stony hard in group C, and moderately reduced in group D. Azoospermia was evident in groups B and C, while sperm concentration was reduced to <1 million/mL with zero sperm motility in group D. Rats of groups B and C failed to show mounting and copulatory behaviour. A completely disorganized mesh of cellular elements was observed in the seminiferous tubules of group B, while pyknotic germ cell and arrest of spermatogenesis, exfoliated germ cells, occasional syncytial bodies and smaller Leydig cells were evident in groups C and D. Significantly reduced testosterone levels, increased luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels, returned to normal after 90 days in group D. Conclusions: Zinc gluconate and CaCl2 injections severely affected the reproductive organs and libido and rats treated with CdCl2 exhibited diminished spermatogenesis with normal libido. Thus, the need-based selection of intratesticular agents should consider their distinct effects on spermatogenesis, libido, and hormonal balance for achieving targeted sterilization outcomes.
