This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the level of motor competence in preschool children and to identify differences between boys and girls. The sample consisted of 94 preschool children, categorized by gender: 41 boys (mean age 6.25±0.29 years; height 119.17±5.16 cm; body mass 21.96±2.55 kg) and 53 girls (mean age 6.23±0.28 years; height 119.32±5.91 cm; body mass 21.99±3.98 kg). To assess motor competence, the Body Coordination Test for Children (Körperkoordinationstestfür Kinder; KTK) was used. The KTK consists of four motor subtests: Balancing Backwards, Moving Sideways, Hopping for Height, and Sideways Jumping. The raw scores of the four KTK tasks were converted into standardized Motor Quotient (MQ) scores using age- and sex-specific norms. MQ scores were then used to determine motor performance categories: Poor (1), Noticeable (2), Normal (3), Good (4), and High (5). Based on the t-test, boys achieved a significantly higher score in the Hopping for Height test (109.80 vs. 95.53, p=0.000), while no differences were observed between the groups in the other three tasks. Boys also scored higher than girls on the Total Grade (2.93 vs. 2.62, p=0.028), with both groups demonstrating, on average, normal motor performance. These findings suggest that there are some differences in motor competence between preschool boys and girls. However, further research with a larger sample is needed to generalize these results. Also, the findings suggest that children generally follow normal motor development; it is recommended to regularly conduct such assessments to identify weaker performance in individual children, which may indicate motor difficulties. This allows children to be promptly directed to appropriate interventions aimed at addressing and preventing motor impairments.
Artistic gymnastics requires a specific morphological profile characterized by high muscle mass and low body fat. Understanding body composition in elite gymnasts is essential for optimizing performance and guiding specialization. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to describe the body composition characteristics of current elite male artistic gymnasts competing at the international level, and to compare all-around gymnasts with upper-body and lower-body specialists, while also analyzing the variability of selected anthropometric and bioelectrical parameters. Thirty-one elite male artistic gymnasts were assessed using a multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analyzer (InBody 770). Basic anthropometric data, whole-body and segmental composition, somatotype indices, and phase angle were evaluated. Athletes were divided into four subgroups: all-around, floor and vault specialists, pommel horse specialists, and ring specialists. Based on somatotype classification, the gymnasts demonstrated a homogeneous mesomorphic profile with high fat-free and skeletal muscle mass and low body fat percentage. Significant inter-group differences were observed in BMI, obesity degree, hip and thigh circumferences, and age (p<0.05). Floor and vault specialists had higher BMI (24.3 vs. 22.2 kg/m²) and larger thigh circumferences (52.4 vs. 49.0 cm) than pommel horse specialists, while ring specialists were older (28.0 vs. 20.0 years) than other groups. Segmental analysis provided additional insight into the distribution of fat-free and fat mass and phase angle in the limbs. Elite male artistic gymnasts exhibit a consistent mesomorphic body type with event-specific adaptations reflecting the biomechanical and functional demands of each apparatus. The inclusion of segmental analysis and non-parametric variability indices adds methodological value and enhances understanding of morphological characteristics in elite gymnastics. These results may serve as reference data for athlete monitoring, selection, and training optimization.
For an occupational test to be a valid measure of physical fitness, it should not be influenced by technical skill proficiency. The Urban Rush (RUSH) is a proposed fitness assessment for specialist police officers, incorporating short explosive sprints, victim drags, and weapon alignment with targets in a kneeling unsupported position; all performed while wearing occupation loads. This preliminary study aimed to compare RUSH performance between specialist police candidates (who passed fitness requirements but had not received specialist training) and qualified tactical officers, to determine whether tactical skills influenced test outcomes. Retrospective data were collected from 34 male specialist police officers (mean age =37.82±6.54 years: mean height =181.62±6.70 cm: mean weight =91.54±10.89 kg) and 18 male specialist police candidates (mean age =32.11±5.04 years: mean height =183.72±5.79 cm: mean weight =89.44±8.57 kg). Qualified officers were significantly older and carried a lighter absolute load than candidates, (18.97±2.23 kg) and (24.02±3.67 kg), respectively. Although qualified officers were generally faster (105.10±14.61 seconds) than candidates (111.73±9.21 seconds) no significant differences in RUSH completion times remained after controlling for age, height, body weight, kit, and Body Mass Index, F(1, 45)=1.65, p=0.21, partial η²=0.04. These findings suggest that the RUSH is not significantly influenced by tactical expertise, supporting its validity as an occupation-specific measure of physical fitness.
understanding socioeconomic disparities in later-life physical activity participation has become increasingly important for both public health and social policy. The purpose of this study was to test whether income-based differences exist in health concern, multidimensional participation constraints, participation satisfaction, and continuance intention among Korean older adults engaged in leisure sports. Data were collected from 311 older adults who regularly engaged in leisure sports, using validated scales (health concern, participation constraints, satisfaction, and continuance intention) from prior research. Significant differences were found in cost, social, and time constraints: low-income older adults reported greater financial barriers and social limitations, while low- and middle-income groups experienced more time constraints than the high-income group. No significant differences emerged for health concerns, health-related constraints, satisfaction, or intention to continue participation. The results underscore that, while leisure sports in later life are tied to consumer culture, they are also vital in health promotion and social connectedness. Policies ensuring minimum access to leisure sports for all older adults, regardless of income, are recommended.
This study aimed to examine the influence of effective playing time (EPT) on match running performance (MRP) in elite soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League (UCL), while controlling for contextual factors. In total, 1371 individual observations, involving 437 outfield players, participating in 32 teams, were collected from 122 matches using an optical tracking system. The MRP variables included total distance (TD), low- (LIR), moderate- (MIR), and high-intensity running (HIR). Linear mixed models were applied, with match outcome, match location, and opponent quality included as fixed effects, and player and team identity as random effects. The results showed that EPT significantly influenced TD (f=5.01–14.20, all p<0.01) and LIR (f=3.23–21.93, all p<0.05) across most playing positions, with players covering 9–10% greater distances in matches with very long EPT compared to very short EPT. In contrast, no significant effects of EPT were observed for MIR and HIR across any playing position. These findings indicated that longer EPT primarily increased overall activity, mainly through low-intensity activities, while moderate- and high-intensity activities remained relatively stable. Importantly, this pattern was consistent across players from multiple national contexts. From a practical perspective, EPT should be considered when planning and monitoring overall load, whereas moderate- and high-intensity activities should be systematically developed and maintained through training independent of EPT.
The aim of this study was to examine the association between health literacy (HL) and mood state before, and after recreational physical exercise in older women. The study included 44 community-dwelling women aged 60–80 years (70.5±4.0 years) from Split, Croatia. Mood states were assessed using the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) immediately before and after an organized recreational exercise session conducted in a public park environment. HL was evaluated using the Croatian version of the European Health Literacy Survey Questionnaire. The dependent samples t-test indicated significant (p<0.05) changes in mood state following exercise participation, with favorable changes identified for four of six of the BRUMS subscales and the BRUMS total score. Canonical correlation analysis revealed significant associations between HL-subdomains and BRUMS-subscores both before and after exercise participation, with stronger correlations after the exercise session (Can R =0.74 and 0.85, for pre- and post-measurement, respectively). In both measurements, the HL canonical root was primarily defined by understanding-, appraising-, and applying-healthcare-related information, while the BRUMS root was mainly characterized by tension, depression, and confusion. Significant negative correlations were also observed between HL-total and BRUMS-total before (r=0.39, p<0.05) and after exercise (r=0.43, p<0.05). In conclusion, HL may represent an important factor influencing acute post-exercise mood states, with potential implications for exercise adherence and healthy aging.
Physical literacy (PL), encompassing motivation, confidence, physical competence, and knowledge related to physical activity, is recognized as an important determinant of lifelong engagement in physical activity. However, limited evidence exists regarding whether higher levels of PL influence acute mood responses to recreational physical activity in older women. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the association between physical literacy and mood state assessed before and after outdoor recreational exercise. The sample consisted of 42 women (70.4±4.1 years) involved in a community-based recreational exercise program conducted in a public park. Physical literacy was assessed at baseline, while mood state was measured immediately before (pretest) and after (posttest) the exercise session using the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS). Participants demonstrated significant improvements in overall mood state following the exercise session (43.6±5.5 vs. 37.2±7.1 at pre- and posttest, respectively; t=5.11, p<0.05). No significant correlations between the PL and BRUMS subscores and the total score were observed in the pretest. However, at posttest, PL was significantly associated with tension (r=−0.32, p<0.05), depression (r=−0.33, p<0.05), and total BRUMS score (r=−0.35, p<0.05), indicating more favorable mood responses among participants with higher PL. When the correlation between PL and posttest BRUMS total score was partialized while controlling for exercise experience, the correlation coefficient slightly decreased but remained statistically significant (r=−0.32, p<0.05). The findings suggest that PL may enhance the psychological benefits of exercise later in life and should be considered in the design of recreational physical activity programs for older women.
Modern football is characterized by playing both in defense and attack, which requires greater energy demands from players, and the amount and intensity of movement increases from year to year. The aim of the study was to determine differences in the distance covered and movement intensities of players in relation to their position in the team. The sample was players who played all 90 minutes of the knockout phase of the 2022 World Cup (N=224), according to positions: goalkeepers (n=31), defense (n=101), midfielders (n=61), and attackers (n=31). Data were taken from the official FIFA website (www.fifa.com): distance covered (m), distance covered in zone 1 (speed 0-7 km/h), in zone 2 (7-15 km/h), in zone 3 (15-20 km/h), in zone 4 (20-25 km/h) and in zone 5 (>25 km/h), number of runs in zone 4, number of sprints in zone 5, maximum achieved speed (km/h). Differences between positions were determined by discriminant analysis. Three discriminant functions were isolated that are statistically significant at the 99% level (sig.=0.000) (Can. Cor.=0.934; Can. Cor =0.492 and Can. Cor.=0.356). The highest correlations with the first function, which maximally differentiates positions (Wilks Lambda =0.085; sig.=0.000), have the variables: intensity of movement in zone 2, number of runs in zone 4 and total distance covered. The second function (Wilks Lambda =0.662; sig.=0.000) is determined by the maximum achieved speed and distance covered in zone 3. The third function (Wilks Lambda =0.873; sig.0.000) is determined by intensity of movement in zone 4, number of sprints, distance covered in zone 5 and in zone 1. Excluding the goalkeeper position, it is evident that positions in the team are approaching each other in relation to distance covered, intensity of movement and maximum speed of movement, which supports the thesis that in modern football, polyvalent football players who can be used in multiple positions in the team are increasingly profiled
Repeated sprint ability (RSA) is a key physical determinant of performance in intermittent sports such as football, reflecting the capacity to perform repeated high-intensity efforts with limited recovery. In amputee soccer, locomotion is characterized by unilateral lower-limb propulsion combined with crutch-assisted upper-body movement, which imposes specific neuromuscular and metabolic demands. Despite the growing popularity of amputee football, limited research has examined targeted conditioning strategies aimed at improving RSA in this population. This study investigated the effects of a 12-week upper-body neuromuscular conditioning program on RSA performance in elite amputee soccer players. Eighteen male players from the Moroccan national team were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n=9) and a control group (n=9). Both groups continued their regular training, while the experimental group performed additional upper-body strength sessions. RSA performance was assessed before and after the intervention using a standardized repeated sprint protocol. Variables included best sprint time (BT), mean sprint time (MT), total sprint time (TT), and fatigue index (FI). Post-intervention results revealed significant improvements in the experimental group compared with the control group for BT (p=0.010; d=1.37), MT (p=0.013; d=1.33), and TT (p=0.012; d=1.33). No significant changes were observed for FI (p=0.420). Change score analysis further confirmed greater improvements in the experimental group, particularly for BT. These findings suggest that the addition of targeted upper-body neuromuscular conditioning to regular training may improve RSA performance in amputee soccer players, highlighting the relevance of sport-specific strength training adapted to the unique biomechanical demands of this population.
In soccer, the use of small-sided game (SSG) is still a trend among professional coaches, but previous studies combining 3-DVR before SSG are still very limited. Our current study aims to analyze the effects of 3-DVR before SSG on intention to continue exercising (ItCE), teamwork (TW) and technical performance (TP) among young soccer athletes. Fifty young soccer athletes were involved as voluntary participants in a true experimental study with a randomized design and they were allocated into 3-DVR before SSG (n=25) and training control group (TCG, n=25). Measurements of ItCE, TW, and TP were conducted at pretest (T1), midtest (T2), and posttest (T3). The results of the mixed repeated measures ANOVA analysis showed that there was an interaction effect of training conditions × time, there was an effect of training conditions, and there was an effect of time for the variable parameters of ItCE (p<0.05 [large effect]), TW (all, p<0.05 [large effect]) and TP (all, p<0.05 [large effect]). Meanwhile, the results of the post hoc pairwise comparisons analysis showed that both the 3-DVR before SSG and TCG (only SSG) groups experienced an increase in ItCE, TW and TP scores at stages T1, T2 and T3. However, we observed that the increase was higher in the 3-DVR before SSG group than in the TCG (only SSG) group. Thus, our study adds to the literature proving the positive effects of 3-DVR before SSG on increasing ItCE, TW and TP among young soccer athletes.
This study aims to analyze the differences in physical fitness between adolescents according to sex, adjusting for the active tissue ratio (ATR), computed dividing the lean and fat mass. In this way, the motor performance was evaluated considering the active (lean mass) and non-active (fat mass) body tissue. Forty-six secondary school students were evaluated using the ALPHA-Fitness battery. The raw data yielded significantly better results in boys in all tests (p<0.001; d>0.8), but when the ATR was considered (which was higher in boys by 2.66 units of active tissue; p<0.001), the data balanced out and even in some cases suggested better efficiency in girls. Concretely in the horizontal jump, the adjusted value in boys was 3.46 cm per unit of active tissue and in girls 3.84 cm per unit of active tissue (p<0.001; r=0.55) and in the 4x10 meters agility test, girls completed the course at 1.67 km/h more per unit of active tissue (p<0.001; r=0.62). When adjusting the data according to active tissue, physical performance among adolescents of different sexes tends to balance, and in some cases even favors girls. It would be worthwhile to analyze the causes of girls’ higher adjusted performance in certain fitness variables, especially those related to lower limb strength/power.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship and predictive value of somatotype components for selected indicators of physical fitness in adolescent male soccer players. A sample of 110 boys aged 13-15 years, engaged in structured training, was included. Somatotype was determined using the Heath–Carter method (endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy). Physical fitness was assessed through agility (zig-zag test), muscular endurance (trunk lifts in 30 seconds), explosive strength (standing long jump), sprint speed (10 m, 20 m, 30 m), and aerobic capacity (Leger test). Pearson’s correlation and multiple linear regression (OLS) were applied. Mesomorphy showed a strong positive association with abdominal endurance (β=0.555; p<0.001) and negative correlations with sprint time at 10 m (r=-0.329; p<0.01) and 30 m (r=-0.258; p<0.05). Ectomorphy was associated with slower sprint times, particularly at 10 m (r=0.418; p<0.01), while endomorphy was negatively related to explosive strength (r=-0.296; p<0.01) and aerobic capacity (β=-0.228; p=0.013). The regression models accounted for 6.9%–21.1% of the variance in the performance tests. Somatotype components are significant predictors of specific physical fitness attributes in adolescent soccer players. Integrating somatotype assessment into training programs may support more effective individualization of training and talent identification.
Physical fitness is a key health indicator in children and adolescents, playing a fundamental role in promoting healthy lifestyle and preventing overweight and obesity-related diseases. This study aimed to develop age- and sex-specific normative values for physical fitness among Apulian primary school children participating in the SBAM! regional project. A cross-sectional sample of 9,777 children aged 8–9 years (52.1% boys) from 130 schools across all six provinces of Apulia was assessed. Physical fitness tests included standing long jump (SLJ), 6-minute walking test (6MWT), 4×10 m shuttle run (SR), and body mass index (BMI). Percentile values were developed using the LMS method, and MANOVA/ ANOVA were used to examine differences by sex, age, and province. Principal component analysis (PCA) explored the latent structure of physical fitness. Sex- and -age referenced percentile values have been developed from all participants in the SBAM! project for each province. Age and the age×sex interaction significantly predicted performance across fitness tests. Provincial effects and interactions involving province were statistically detectable, but their effect sizes’ magnitude was very small (ω² ≈ 0.001). PCA revealed a two-factor structure: one related to physical fitness (SLJ, 6MWD, SR), and another reflecting anthropometric characteristics (BMI). Overall, Apulian children demonstrated fitness levels comparable to peers from other Italian regions. These findings emphasise the value of regional fitness surveillance and provide educators and policymakers with practical normative benchmarks to support targeted, health-oriented physical education initiatives.
With a sedentary lifestyle often manifesting among students, motivation for participation in sports activities, such as running, is a concern of particular interest. Studies so far have not assessed students’ running motivation using a standardized questionnaire. Therefore, this paper aimed to evaluate sex differences in students’ motivation for running. A total of 321 students from Serbian universities (162 males and 159 females) completed the standardized Motivations for Marathon 56-item questionnaire, consisting of 9 subscales. T-test for independent samples showed significant sex differences in General health (p<0.001), Affiliation (p=0.004), and all psychological scales (Coping, Self-esteem, and Life meaning; p<0.001), indicating higher scores in females than male students. In contrast, male students had significantly higher scores on the Competition scale (p<0.001) than females. The Weight Concerns, Recognition, and Personal Goal scales showed no significant sex differences. In line with our hypothesis, we can conclude that female students’ motivation for running mostly relies on psychological and health motives. In contrast, male students only differentiate themselves from their female colleagues in competition motives. Running coaches in collegiate teams or student organizations interested in engaging students in running could benefit from these results by profoundly understanding sex differences in students’ motivation. For example, they can organize running activities for female students focused on stress relief or health improvement while providing their male colleagues with more 19 race-related running activities.
The manuscript investigates whether a short, high-intensity interval cycling re-warm-up (RWU) can mitigate the performance decline observed in basketball substitutes after passive bench rest. Thirteen semi-professional male basketball players participated in a within-subjects crossover design consisting of two experimental conditions (CON and RWUint), performed on separate days in a counterbalanced order. In the control condition, athletes completed 15 minutes of passive rest following a standardized warm-up, whereas in the experimental condition (RWUint), they completed 13.5 minutes of rest followed by three 5-second maximal cycling sprints at 7.5% of their body mass, separated by 25-second recovery intervals. In both condi-tions, athletes rested for one additional minute before the subsequent measurements. Perfor-mance outcomes included the countermovement jump (CMJ) and the modified agility T-test (MAT), while physiological variables (heart rate and body temperature) and subjective percep-tions, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and perceived readiness to return (PRR), were also assessed. The findings demonstrated smaller declines in CMJ (p<0.001 in CON; p=0.005 in RWUint) and MAT performance (p=0.03 in CON; p=0.56 in RWUint) under the RWUint condi-tion than in passive rest, as well as reduced reductions in heart rate and body temperature (p<0.001). Although RPE slightly increased (p=0.150) and PRR remained stable (p=0.303) fol-lowing RWUint, both parameters deteriorated during passive rest (p=0.003 and p<0.001, respec-tively). The authors conclude that brief, high-intensity interval re-warm-up sessions effectively preserve physiological readiness and neuromuscular performance, offering a practical, time-efficient strategy for basketball substitutes during competition.
to determine, using a podoscope, the prevalence of flat feet (pes planus) among preschool-aged children in Leskovac. The sample of respondents consisted of 100 children from the preschool institution "Vukica Mitrović" from Leskovac, aged 4 to 6 years. Of all children, 46% were boys and 54% were girls. The results showed that 72% of children have flat feet and only 28% of children have normal feet. Of the total number of children, 30% had pes planus first degree (PP1), 23% had pes planus second degree (PP2), 14% had pes planus third degree (PP3), and 5% had pes planus fourth degree (PP4). The chi-square (χ²) test of independence did not show a significant relationship between gender and foot status in children. This means that flat feet are equally represented in boys and girls without a significant difference. Research has shown that the prevalence of flat feet in preschool children decreases over time. Namely, the prevalence of flat feet in 4-year-old children is 90.9%, in 5-year-old children 74.4%, and in 6-year-old children 57.1%. The obtained data show that children from Leskovac do not lag behind children from other cities of Serbia, Europe, and the world in the prevalence of flat feet. The obtained results are an alarm for educators to devote more time to organizing physical education games that will encourage the development of the foot muscles and enable the natural development of the longitudinal arch of the foot, which would reduce the percentage of children with flat feet, and thus the eventual consequences of that condition.
In contemporary society, married women are often required to navigate multiple roles, including household responsibilities, childcare, and economic participation. This study examined differences in perceived health, self-esteem, and life satisfaction among 222 married Korean women classified into three groups: active leisure, passive leisure, and inactive. Perceived health was assessed using a modified version of Kim (2003) and Kwon (2011)'s scale (14 items; physical, mental, and social health subscales), self-esteem was measured using a revised Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (10 items; positive and negative subscales), and life satisfaction was assessed using an instrument adapted from Roach et al. (1981) (5 items). Results indicated that active leisure participants reported the highest levels of perceived physical health (M=3.55), positive self-esteem (M=3.89), and life satisfaction (M=3.87), followed by passive leisure participants, with the inactive group scoring the lowest across all domains. Regarding perceived mental health and positive self-esteem, both leisure groups outperformed the inactive group (p<0.001), with no significant difference between them. Perceived social health was significantly higher among active leisure participants than among the other two groups (p<0.05). The inactive group exhibited the highest negative self-esteem (M=3.31). These findings highlight the beneficial effects of leisure participation on married women’s well-being and suggest that active leisure exerts the most significant impact. Nevertheless, passive leisure also offers meaningful psychological benefits compared with inactivity, underscoring its value as a feasible strategy for enhancing life satisfaction in this population.
This study examined the health-conscious strategies, dietary habits, hydration practices, training behaviors, and body image of female fitness competitors and recreational gym users (N=201; 101 competitors in lower-demand categories, 100 recreational athletes). Data were collected via an online questionnaire, including the BSQ-34 for body image assessment. Both groups demonstrated health awareness, but with distinct priorities. Competitors emphasized performance- oriented behaviors, such as structured training, strict seasonal diets, intensive supplement use, and precise hydration, while recreational athletes focused on overall health, long-term well-being, and flexible nutrition. Training frequency was higher among competitors, who adhered to periodized routines, whereas recreational athletes showed greater avoidance of unhealthy fats and preference for natural supplements. Notably, body dissatisfaction was higher among recreational athletes, likely influenced by aesthetic motivations and social media, while competitors maintained a more realistic perception of their physique despite seasonal fluctuations. Even in lower-demand competition categories, extreme preparatory practices persisted, highlighting the need for educational interventions promoting balanced nutrition, safe supplementation, and realistic body image. Overall, the findings underscore the differences in goal orientation, risk exposure, and lifestyle consistency between performance-driven competitors and health-focused recreational athletes.
The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of Romanian deadlift (RDL) and Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) on the stiffness and flexibility of hamstring muscles. We hypothesized that a) the RDL would have a greater acute effect on increasing the flexibility, b) the NHE would have a greater acute effect on the increase in stiffness of the biceps femoris (BF) and semitendinosus (ST) in comparison to the semimembranosus (SM), and c) RDL would have a greater acute effect on the increase in stiffness of the SM in comparison to the ST. Twelve young, healthy participants (6 females; 22.8±3.0 years) performed RDL, and 12 participants (8 females; 22.8±3.1 years) performed NHE, with both interventions comprising 5 sets of 10 repetitions. Baseline and post-intervention stiffness was measured using shear– wave elastography, and flexibility using the passive straight leg raise test. There were no significant main effects of time (p=0.744), group (p=0.202), nor the interaction between time and group (p=0.131) for shear modulus. Similarly, no significant main effects of time (p=0.717) and group (p=0.856), nor an interaction between time and group (p=0.444), were observed for flexibility. These findings suggest that neither RDL nor NHE induce immediate measurable changes in hamstring muscle stiffness or flexibility. However, given the small group-specific sample size, the absence of significant effects should be interpreted cautiously and cannot be generalized beyond young, healthy recreationally active individuals.
Questions of pedagogical effectiveness in physical education, especially regarding how students are grouped during instruction, remain important for designing effective skill-based curricula. This study aimed to examine the qualitative effects of ability-based grouping in university-level swimming education. A pre–post experimental design was used, involving two groups of students: an experimental group that received instruction in homogeneous groups based on their swimming abilities (n=37), and a control group taught in heterogeneous, alphabetically based groups (n=39). All participants followed the same swimming curriculum and were assessed using standardized measures of swimming abilities and swimming skills at the beginning and at the end of the course. In the control group, correlations between swimming skills and abilities showed a slight decrease, whereas in the experimental group they generally increased. Both groups retained a single-factor structure at the initial and final measurements. However, the control group showed a reduction in factor loadings and in the proportion of explained variance (from 79% to 74%). In contrast, the experimental group demonstrated stable factor loadings and a slight increase in explained variance (from 72% to 76%), indicating a more coherent integration of swimming skills and abilities. These findings suggest that grouping students based on their initial abilities can improve the coherence of learning outcomes and enhance pedagogical effectiveness in physical education. Considering the importance of swimming skills in everyday life, further researches are warranted.
