The carbon balance of old-growth forests remains contested, with studies alternately reporting strong carbon sinks, near-equilibrium states, or net carbon sources. Here, we synthesise peer-reviewed evidence to examine whether reported carbon balance classifications are influenced by observation length and measurement method. We conducted a systematic literature review of 60 publications (51 empirical studies and 9 reviews) addressing net carbon balance in old-growth forests. Each empirical study was classified as reporting a net carbon sink, dynamic equilibrium, or net carbon source. Using generalized linear models applied to study-level classifications, we tested the effects of observation length and measurement method on reported carbon balance outcomes. Longer observation periods were associated with higher odds of classifying old-growth forests as operating near dynamic carbon equilibrium; however, this effect did not reach statistical significance. In contrast, measurement method exerted a statistically significant influence: studies based on eddy covariance measurements had nearly twice the odds of classifying forests toward higher carbon uptake categories compared to field-based inventory approaches. Collectively, these results demonstrate that reported carbon balance states of old-growth forests reflect not only ecological processes, but also observational framing, methodological sensitivity, and temporal scale. Our findings caution against simplified narratives portraying old-growth forests as universal carbon sinks or sources, and highlight the need for long-term, methodologically transparent assessments when evaluating forest-based climate mitigation strategies.
In the era of climate change, increasing ecological disturbances, and declining biodiversity, forest ecosystems face growing challenges that require effective restoration approaches grounded in ecological principles, sustainability, and adaptive management. Forest restoration plays an important role in developing resilient, stable, healthy, and diverse forests capable of sustaining ecosystem services. As these challenges intensify, restoration efforts become more important for ensuring the long-term sustainability of forests. Understanding the history of restoration is therefore crucial for making informed choices and guiding both current and future decisions. This overview examines the development of forest restoration in Croatia through three significant historical periods: before 1940, from 1940 to 1990, and from 1990 to the present. Each period reflects the increasing significance and growing understanding of restoration, shaped by environmental needs, policy, knowledge, social awareness, and technological capabilities. Early efforts were based on demanding afforestation and reforestation practices, driven by economic and political events, environmental disasters, and conservation needs. In the mid-20th century, efforts were influenced by post-war forest degradation and industrial forestry. Since 1990, restoration has increasingly incorporated ecological principles, international frameworks, and adaptive strategies, supported by advances in science, rising public awareness, and improved technology and mechanisation. The growing role of forest restoration over time reflects a broader recognition of its complexity and importance in addressing both past degradation and future environmental uncertainties.
This study examines the impact of Protective Forest Belts (PFBs) on wind speed, air temperature, evapotranspiration, and soil properties in South Banat, Serbia. Six PFBs, composed of black walnut ( Juglans nigra ) and Siberian elm ( Ulmus pumila ), were analyzed for their effectiveness in improving environmental conditions in a highly susceptible to wind erosion Vojvodina region. The research involved measuring wind speed and air temperature windward of the PFBs (at 50 m) and leeward at distances of 30 m, 60 m, and 90 m within the protection zone. Composite soil samples were collected in the PFBs, as well as leeward at 30 m and 90 m within the protection zone. The results demonstrate a significant reduction in wind speed within the protected zone, with a 50% decrease recorded at 30 meters from the PFBs during the growing season. This wind reduction contributes to lower evapotranspiration, enhancing soil moisture retention. Additionally, air temperature increased immediately behind the PFBs before gradually declining with distance. The soil within the PFBs exhibited physical and chemical properties compared to adjacent agricultural land. Notably, PFBs-protected areas contained higher levels of organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus, along with improved moisture retention and reduced clay content. These benefits were most pronounced near the belts and diminished with increasing distance. A statistically significant correlation was also found between changes in wind speed and temperature on one hand, and the optical porosity of the belt on the other. The study underscores the multifunctional role of PFBs in enhancing microclimatic conditions and soil quality, positioning them as a crucial agroforestry strategy for sustainable agriculture. Given the significant threats of wind erosion in Vojvodina’s intensively farmed landscapes, the findings advocate for the broader implementation of PFBs.
The increasing human impact on the environment, which contributes to its contamination, has imposed the need for active monitoring of such elements through certain bioindicators. The roe deer, as the most numerous species of game among the autochthonous wild ungulates, which is widespread throughout the territory of the Republic of Serbia, was used as a bioindicator. The concentrations of cadmium and lead (Cd and Pb) were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometry in the liver (59) and kidney (68) of roe deer harvested during the regular hunting season in three hunting grounds in Central Serbia. The mean value of Cd in liver samples from all hunting grounds was 0.223 mg·kg-1wet weight with a range of 0.046-0.247 mg·kg-1, while in kidney was 0.474 mg·kg-1 and ranged from 0.356-0.541 mg·kg-1. However, the mean value of Pb in the liver was 0.551 mg/kg-1 with a range of 0.470-0.686 mg·kg-1, while in the kidney it was 0.395 mg·kg-1 with a range of 0.292-0.640 mg·kg-1. With respect to mean Cd concentrations in the liver and kidneys, statistically significant differences were observed for both the locality and tissue factors, whereas for Pb, significant differences were detected only in relation to the locality factor. Cadmium (Cd) concentrations were within permissible limits in both liver and kidney tissues (0.5 and 1.0 mg·kg-1). In contrast, the mean lead (Pb) concentration in the liver exceeded the allowed limit (0.5 mg·kg-1), while kidney Pb concentrations showed occasional exceedances but remained within permissible limits on average (0.5 mg·kg-1).
In the coastal sand dune forests of North Central Vietnam, vegetation has been seriously damaged by war and overexploitation. To recover ecosystem functions, including sand stabilisation under harsh environments, exotic species like Acacia spp. have been planted as a monoculture. However, the long-term sustainability of this practice remains unclear. To assess the long-term effectiveness of revegetation with Acacia spp., this study aims to understand the differences and similarities in ecological characteristics of remnant natural forests and Acacia plantations on the coastal sand dune of North Central Vietnam by comparing understory vegetation structure and environmental conditions. We investigated the understory vegetation (height < 130 cm) in a total of 54 quadrants (1 m × 1 m), including nine natural forests and nine Acacia plantations. We compared diversity indices by mixed ANOVA and examined the differences in the understory vegetation structure between the two forest types through PERMANOVA. We also determined some abiotic environmental factors (e.g. light and soil water availability, and soil pH). We identified 951 individuals, with 792 found in natural forests and 159 in plantations. The species found in natural forests were well-distributed among Liana phanerophytes (Lp), Microphanerophytes (Mi), Mega-Mesophanerophytes (MM), and Cryptophytes (Cr). In contrast, species found in plantations were predominantly Cr, Hemicryptophytes (Hm), and MM. All diversity indices were significantly higher in natural forests (P < 0.05), and the NMDS analysis confirmed significant differences in the understory vegetation structure between natural forests and plantations. Only soil pH was significantly lower in natural forests (P < 0.05), while none of the environmental factors had a statistically significant impact on the variations in understory vegetation structure. Our results indicate that succession by native tree species does not seem to occur naturally in Acacia plantations. Hence, to restore and sustainably develop coastal sand dune forests in North Central Vietnam, it is essential to establish a scientifically based strategy for managing and protecting the remaining natural remnant forest areas.
Sustainable management of Pinus sylvestris L. plantations under changing climatic conditions requires a comprehensive understanding of how climate variability and drought influence tree growth. This study investigates vegetation activity assessed via the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), and radial growth variability, (EW – earlywood width, LW – latewood width, TRW – tree-ring width, and BAI – basal area increment), in a P. sylvestris plantation in central Albania. This is the first such study conducted in Albania, addressing a significant geographical gap in the southernmost natural range of this species in the Balkans. Climate-growth relationships were explored using Pearson correlation analysis with temperature, precipitation, and drought indices (SPI – Standardised Precipitation Index and SPEI – Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index). August NDVI and EVI correlated positively with LW and BAI. Both vegetation indices were positively associated with spring and autumn temperatures, while EVI with June and September precipitation. NDVI was most responsive to the 7-month SPI and SPEI in April, whereas EVI was sensitive to the 7-month SPI in September and the 4-month SPEI in June. Summer temperatures negatively impacted LW and BAI. July precipitation strongly enhanced LW, TRW, and BAI. EW showed the highest positive correlation with the 4-month SPI in August but was negatively correlated at scales longer than 14 months, in winter and spring. LW and TRW demonstrated remarkable positive associations with SPI and SPEI in July (1-month). BAI was most drought-sensitive in August (4-month for SPEI and 6-month for SPI). These findings provide critical insights into the climate sensitivity of P. sylvestris and offer a scientific basis for adaptive forest management in Mediterranean regions increasingly affected by drought and warming trends.
Widely spread across Europe, black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) is a keystone species in riparian ecosystems. In North Macedonia, the black alder population present in the proximity of Lake Prespa is under severe threat due to the combined impact of anthropogenic factors, climate change, and the age and state of the mature trees. Recent reforestation activities where locally produced seedlings were planted have been conducted; however, significant knowledge gaps regarding the species biology and current state of the reproductive material may decrease the output, i.e., seedling survival. Therefore, in the present study, we analyse the physical and physiological properties of seed lots collected in 2023 and 2024. Furthermore, we also analyse the results from five pre-sowing treatments (cold stratification, ethanol treatment, hydrogen peroxide treatment, water soak, and hydrothermal treatment) selected based on the A. glutinosa seed properties. The results indicate a lower viability in the seed lot from 2023, which could be due to the longer storage as well as a potentially low-seed year. The lower viability is reflected in the lower thousand seeds weight (1.165 g in 2023, 1.725 g in 2024), lower germination capacity (20.7% in 2023, 33.4% in 2024), lower germination energy (19.9% in 2023, 31.9% in 2024), and lower viability (18.5% of healthy seeds in 2023, 36.24% in 2024). The comparison between the pre-sowing treatments showed cold stratification as superior to all other treatments, for the seeds lots from both years. Furthermore, with ethanol treatment and water soak, no seeds germinated, indicating a deep dormancy of black alder seeds that needs to be overcome by more intensive physical and/or chemical stimulation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted on black alder seeds’ germination capacity in North Macedonia. As such, it provides valuable insight into the overall state of the reproductive material as well as practical data on the pre-sowing treatments’ effect. With conservation in mind, future research analysing the results of direct sowing as compared to planting, as well as the improvement of nursery production with higher seeding rates (due to the natural low viability of black alder seeds) and the implementation of arbuscular ectomycorrhiza could be of interest.
Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karsten) is one of the most economically important conifer species in Europe. Efficient utilisation and processing of its wood require detailed knowledge of its technical properties, as well as the most common wood defects that substantially affect both properties and utilisation. Given the crucial role of wood defects in the roundwood classification system, the primary objective of this study was to identify defects in Norway spruce and to analyse the influence of forest assortment characteristics (diameter and position along the stem) and tree attributes (diameter at breast height and position within the stand) on the size of wood defects. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, within a forest compartment of an uneven-aged, mixed beech and silver fir stand with spruce. Trees were felled and processed into assortments using a chainsaw, predominantly applying the cut-to-length method. After measuring the assortment dimensions, the occurrence of defects was assessed, and their sizes were determined. The analysis showed that, following knots, the most common wood defect was rot, followed by pith eccentricity, compression wood, scars, mechanical damage, and resin pockets. Statistically significant differences were found in the size of knots, ellipticity, and taper among different diameter classes of assortments (p<0.05), as well as assortment positions along the stem (p=0.0000). Also, a statistically significant difference was observed in the size of the knots and ellipticity in relation to both diameter at the breast height and tree position within the stand (p<0.05). Overall, the findings align with previous studies, confirming the higher quality of the lower stem section, as reflected in smaller defect sizes critical for roundwood quality classification, such as knots, rot, ellipticity, and taper.
Rustcaused byGymnosporangium cornutumArthurex F. Kern isone ofthe mostcommon diseasesofrowan (Sorbusaucuparia L.). Currently, there is little information on the development of this disease in forestry literature. In order to eliminate this deficiency, the examination of the influence of Sorbus aucuparia genotype and leaf dimensions on the occurrence and abundance of aecia ofGymnosporangium cornutum was carried out. The genotype had a statistically significant influence on aecia occurrence, while leaf length, width, circumference, and area had a statistically significant influence on aecia abundance. About 10% of Sorbus aucuparia genotypes showed greater tolerance to Gymnosporangium cornutum, with a nearly4-fold lower probabilityofaeciaoccurringonleaves. LargerleavesofSorbus aucupariasensitivegenotype had a greater Gymnosporangium cornutumaeciaabundancecomparedtosmallerleaves. Theresultsobtainedforthefirsttimeindicatethe possibility of selecting and producing reproductive material of Sorbus aucuparia tolerant to Gymnosporangium cornutum.
Chainsaw felling and processing work is conducted in various natural conditions and requires significant physical effort from the workers, movement in severe weather and environmental conditions, and has a high risk of injury. The aim of this study was to determine the physiological workload of chainsaw operators through continuous heart rate measurement during the entire working day. The research was carried out during the summer of 2024, encompassing different parts of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Heart rate was measured using a Polar H10 Heart Rate Monitor Chest Strap with continuous data logging and storage of heart rate readings. A time study was performed based on recordings conducted simultaneously with the recording of heart rate, with the aim of determining the duration of individual work operations and identifying the work operation with the highest negative impact on the worker. The average working heart rate during productive work time for subject 1 was 104 bpm, 83 bpm for subject 2, 109 bpm for subject 3, 94 bpm for subject 4 and 129 bpm for subject 5. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test showed a statistically significant difference in average heart rate in relation to the time study element. The heart rate reserve (%HRR) for the whole study time was estimated at 41.05 % for subject 1; 22.69% for subject 2; 44.50% for subject 3; 24.04% for subject 4, and 45.78% for subject 5. The results of the study showed that the %HRR of chainsaw operators during felling and processing exceeded the value of 40% for 3 out of 5 subjects, which corresponds to hard work and may have negative consequences for operators health.
This study explored the relationships between geological substrate and the structural and compositional attributes of mixed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), fir (Abies alba Mill.), and spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) forests on Mt. Konjuh in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Research was conducted on 81 experimental plots established across three dominant substrates: limestone, peridotite, and chert. Stand structure, diversity, and spatial organization were assessed using the Shannon diversity index, Pretzsch's species profile index, Gini coefficient, and the Clark-Evans and F & uuml;ldner indices. The analyses revealed consistent differences among substrates, suggesting that geological conditions influence forest structure and diversity. Higher diversity and vertical heterogeneity were generally associated with limestone, while stands on peridotite and chert exhibited simpler but more balanced structures. All forest types displayed a reverse J-shaped diameter distribution, indicating uneven-aged composition and ongoing natural regeneration. Spatial patterns showed a tendency toward clustering of beech and spruce and higher species mingling on limestone. Overall, mixed beech-fir-spruce forests on Mt. Konjuh appear to be stable ecosystems whose structure and diversity are shaped by an interplay of geological, edaphic, and ecological factors. The results highlight the relevance of site-specific and adaptive silvicultural approaches that account for local variability in substrate and stand conditions.
Charcoal yield and quality are influenced by both process parameters and raw material characteristics. In industrial settings, temperature, heating rate, and residence time are typically controlled. However, in rural and traditional production systems, raw material properties—particularly moisture content—become critical for improving efficiency. This study evaluated the effect of initial moisture content (MC) in Prosopis laevigata firewood on charcoal yield and quality. Firewood samples (20×20×20 mm) were conditioned to MC levels of 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60%, and subjected to pyrolysis under laboratory conditions at 450°C for 30 minutes. Firewood and charcoal characteristics were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and linear regression (p<0.05). Results showed that the highest charcoal yield (28%) and density (0.28 gˑcm³) were obtained at 0% MC. Ash content decreased significantly with lower MC, reaching the lowest value (1.58%) at 0% MC. Strong correlations were found between firewood MC and basic density (R²=0.81), charcoal yield (R²=0.87), and energy efficiency (R²=0.65). These findings suggest that reducing firewood moisture content is a simple and effective strategy to improve charcoal yield and quality in traditional production systems.
Gornje Podunavlje Special Nature Reserve in Serbia is recognized by its specific, unique and diverse flora and fauna. Pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur L.) and Euramerican poplar ( Populus × euramericana (Dode) Guinier) are the most widespread and economically important tree species grown in this area. The aim of our study was to analyze for the first time the diversity of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi on these two tree species in Gornje Podunavlje. ECM fungi were identified combining morphological and anatomical characterization with molecular analysis based on PCR amplification of the ITS region of fungal nuclear ribosomal DNA. The number of different categories of fine roots were counted, diversity indices were calculated, and ECM fungi were classified into exploration types. Some soil physical and chemical properties were analyzed as well. Twenty-eight ECM fungal taxa were found in total at two sites. Sixteen ECM fungi were identified to the species level, eight to the genus level, and three fungi remained unidentified. A total of 17 ECM fungal taxa were identified in the pedunculate oak stand and 15 in the Euramerican poplar plantation. Short-distance exploration type dominated on both tree species, but higher abundance of long-distance exploration type was recorded in the oak stand, which is likely related to the higher humus content measured at this site.
Nature-based solutions (NbS) provide a unique opportunity to address sustainable development challenges and supply benefits for both people and nature, such as support for climate change mitigation. This study compiles information about the most common climate-related natural hazards in the Western Balkans (WB) region. It assesses the institutional, policy, and legal framework for implementing NbS to address these problems. The study compares the policies, knowledge gaps, and current challenges to NbS mainstreaming in Croatia, a European Union (EU) country, with those in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Albania as non-EU countries. In EU countries, the policy framework transposes the main European Directives, which enforce the need to implement NbS, climate change, and natural hazards mitigation, mainly focused on built infrastructure or technical measures in non-EU countries. The possibilities to mainstream NbS, such as the need for a centralized governance structure, using NbS to integrate different sectoral policies, and the involvement of stakeholders and funding agencies, are discussed. The WB region must advance NbS implementation for climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and other pressing societal challenges. The institutional structure and policy framework relevant to implementing NbS to mitigate climate-related natural hazards show similarities between the WB countries. However, significant differences, particularly regarding transposition of EU Directives between the EU and non-EU WB countries, are easily recognizable.
Since its first documentation on the European continent in 1983, the invasive micromoth Macrosaccus robiniella (Clemens, 1859) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) was known only for its lower-side blotch mines occupying one of the leaflet halves (common mine type, hereafter mine type 1). In 2023, in abundant populations of M. robiniella in forest areas of Slovenia and Croatia (with more than 50% of leaves damaged), we observed that, in addition to the common mine, this invasive species is capable of forming three other mine types. One (type 2) resembles the common mine type by occupying one half of a leaflet, but the mine is situated on the upper side of the leaf. The two other mine types differ from the common mine in both appearance and position on the leaflet. These include a blotch above the midrib on the upper side of the leaflet (type 3) and a narrow blotch at the edge, causing strong downward folding (type 4). The mines of types 3 and 4 resemble the damage caused by two North American black locust herbivores that are also invasive to Europe: the gracillariid Parectopa robiniella Clemens, 1863 (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) and the gall midge Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldeman, 1847) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), respectively. In the studied localities, the relative abundance of mine types 3 and 4 was about four times higher than that of mine type 1. The parasitism rate in these mines was 6.5 times lower compared to that in mine type 1. No statistical difference was found in the parasitism rate between mine types 3 and 4. We discuss how the leaf-mining behaviour of M. robiniella may provide an enemy-free space, conferring a survival advantage and supporting a high population density in forested areas.
Creating places where urban life is better and of a higher quality is one of the main tasks of the modern society. These places are called ‘great places’ and urban parks have all the predispositions to be one of them. Due to the functions they perform, they are a necessary part of every city. Urban planning and landscape design are very important in the process of creating ‘great places’ for citizens. With their proper use, successful green spaces are created, which are functional and aesthetic at the same time. This is especially important since green areas in the urban environment are becoming less numerous. The subject of analysis in this paper is urban planning and landscape design through the example of Park Macedonia 1 in Skopje, North Macedonia. The park is analysed from different aspects (functionality, safety, plant species selection, layout of the plants and the use of basic principles of landscape design) to determine if this place is a ‘great place’, i.e. whether this place at the same time functional and aesthetic. The results show that Park Macedonia 1 is a ‘great place’; however, there are some gaps in its urban planning and landscape design. These gaps are reflected in the safety of the visitors and the functionality of the park, made in the process of plant species selection and landscape designing of the park, i.e. entrances and exits, layout of plants, incorrect use of focal points, and simplicity, rhythm and line as basic principles of landscape design. Analyses of Park Macedonia 1 in terms of urban planning and landscape design and the proposals for corrections can be used in the future design of ‘great places’ in urban areas like Skopje.
Urban green spaces are essential for enhancing ecosystem services, biodiversity, and human well-being, yet their sustainability relies on the long-term vitality and aesthetic quality of trees. This study examined changes in tree vitality and decorativeness in Akademski Park, Belgrade, Serbia, over a ten-year period (2015–2025) to assess species-specific responses to urban environmental stress. Data were collected using the basic Visual Tree Assessment (VTA) method, evaluating 132 trees in 2015 and 121 in 2025 across 22 species. Both vitality and aesthetic values were rated on a five-point scale, and differences were tested using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples. Results showed a slight overall decline in vitality (from 3.9 to 3.7) and a stable decorativeness score (3.6–3.7). Significant reductions in vitality were observed for Cedrus atlantica (p=0.002), while Tilia cordata showed improvement (p=0.037). Platanus × acerifolia exhibited a significant increase in decorativeness (p=0.040), confirming its adaptability to urban conditions. Other species displayed minor or non-significant changes, indicating general stability in tree health and visual quality. The findings suggest that Akademski Park has maintained its ecological and aesthetic function despite environmental pressures. Long-term monitoring and species-specific management are essential for sustaining urban tree vitality and optimising the resilience of green infrastructure under changing climatic conditions.
Hunting is one of the oldest human activities. While it historically served as a source of food and other resources, in modern society it has evolved into a significant economic activity. Croatia possesses favourable conditions for the development of hunting tourism, owing to its rich natural resources and widespread interest in hunting. However, the extent and manner in which safety measures are implemented to prevent hunting accidents remain insufficiently explored. To address this research gap, a survey was conducted among 338 hunters in Croatia. The results indicate a relatively high level of awareness among hunters regarding potential accidents, and that safety measures are mostly practiced. Additionally, the study examined differences in attitudes toward hunting safety between less experienced and more experienced hunters. Hunting experience was operationalised using two indicators: the number of hunting trips undertaken by respondents in the past year and the total number of years of hunting activity. Statistical analysis was performed using the chi-square test. Statistically significant differences were found in six out of 17 survey items, primarily between more frequent and less frequent hunters. To improve hunting safety and prevent future accidents, the majority of the respondents recommended more intensive education and training for hunters.
In the study, vegetation was classified according to the distribution of perennial plant species in the Alacadağ Natural Reserve (NR) district which has high plant species richness. Classified vegetation groups were modeled by using environmental factors. Using these models, vegetation communities were mapped according to hierarchical classification. A grid network with a cell size of 100 · 100 m was created and 150 sample plots of 20 · 20 m in size were established. Plant species coverage was recorded in field studies according to the Braun-Blanquet scale. Cluster analysis was applied for the classification of vegetation communities based on binary hierarchical classification. Cluster groups were modeled with environmental variables using the classification tree analysis. The accuracy of the vegetation groups as a result of cluster analysis and modeling was tested by chi-square, kappa, and multiple permutation analyses at each distinction stage. Model groups with significant results were generalized and mapped on digital layers by using the prediction values. Indicator species for the vegetation groups were identified by indicator species analysis. As a result of this process, the study area was divided into 4 vegetation groups. The elevation and, correspondingly, climate were the most effective environmental variables in the differentiation of vegetation groups. In addition, ruggedness, hillshade, roughness, and heat index were the other important environmental variables for the vegetation groups in the district. As a result of this study, forest sites were classified for the conservation, sustainability, development, and future planning of the Alacadağ NR region.
Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are natural pathogens of arthropods that can be used widely as environmentally friendly biological control agents. The process of infection by EPF is initiated when the conidia attach to the epicuticle of the host, whereas other agents must be ingested to cause an infection. EPF can infect all developmental stages of insects, which makes them ideal candidates for controlling sap-feeding insects like the oak lace bug Corythucha arcuata (OLB). Several species of EPF have already been found on OLBs in Croatia, including Beauveria pseudobassiana as the most common one. In this research, we confirm the presence of EPF on OLB found at different locations of lowland oak forests in Croatia and report, for the first time, natural fungal infections of OLB by Cordyceps fumosorosea, Cordyceps farinosa, Cordyceps cateniannulata, and Akanthomyces muscarius. To recommend these fungi as potential biocontrol agents towards OLB, their pathogenic ability still needs to be evaluated.
