The aim of this study was to establish a performance prediction model to determine the optimal competition age and the effective window of maximum performance in the men's 100-meter sprint. A total of 408 records were analysed, corresponding to marks achieved by elite athletes who made up the World Athletics world ranking over 20 consecutive seasons (1998–2017). Polynomial gradient mathematical models and a mixed polynomial model were applied to capture the non-linear relationship between age and performance. The results show a positive progression in performance from age 18 to 24, followed by a slight plateau and an effective window of maximum performance between ages 25 and 32. The mixed polynomial model described performance by means of a second-degree polynomial (T = 10.452 − 0.0339·Age + 0.0006·Age²), whose vertex (minimum) is located, using the published rounded coefficients, at around 28–29 years of age. These findings provide coaches with an empirical reference framework, based on two decades of elite competition, for optimizing long-term planning and talent identification.
Water polo lacks sport-specific anaerobic field tests that adequately reflect the physiological and respiratory demands of competition. The repeated sprint ability (RSA) test is commonly used to assess anaerobic performance; however, it does not account for the dynamic apnoea frequently experienced during match play. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of a newly developed water polo-specific anaerobic swimming test (TP) that combines repeated sprint swimming with dynamic apnoea. The protocol was designed to provide a more ecologically valid assessment of water polo performance by incorporating respiratory constraints that mimic real-game situations. Ten elite junior male water polo players participated in the study. The TP test consisted of repeated maximal swimming efforts combined with dynamic apnoea. Reliability was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), coefficient of variation (CV), paired-samples t-test, and minimal detectable change (MDC). Criterion validity was examined through Pearson correlations between TP outcomes and RSA performance. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test confirmed normal data distribution for all variables (p > .20). The TP test demonstrated high relative reliability (ICC = .86), indicating good consistency between testing occasions. The coefficient of variation was 8.6%, suggesting moderate measurement variability, while a significant difference between test and retest scores was observed (t = 2.50). The MDC was 1.99. Criterion validity analysis revealed moderate positive correlations with RSA performance (test: r = .488; retest: r = .543), indicating that both protocols assess related aspects of anaerobic performance while capturing different physiological demands. The TP test showed satisfactory reliability and moderate criterion validity. By integrating dynamic apnoea into repeated sprint assessment, the protocol captures sport-specific respiratory and anaerobic demands not addressed by traditional RSA testing. Although further validation in larger samples is required, the TP test appears to be a practical tool for athlete profiling and performance assessment in water polo.
In volleyball, the float serve is used to create aerodynamic instabilities that will cause deviations from the normal parabolic trajectory. Previous studies have examined serve speed and ball aerodynamics, but the relationship between serve flight distance and trajectory deviation remains unknown. Using a dual camera system, standing float serves were recorded in real conditions. Serves were executed from 9-13m before the net aiming at 3-9 m beyond the net, generating 1224 different serve trajectories. Early frame prediction of landing coordinates for each serve was compared with the real landing coordinates to quantify deviations from the expected parabolic trajectory. Prediction errors were analysed for their dependence on the serve distances with the ANOVA procedure, and the found optimal distances were associated with the increased expectation of achieving high deviations (≥27.1cm) with the Fisher’s exact test. Results showed that 16-17 m is associated with increased trajectory deviation when compared to shorter (p < .001) and longer (p < .001) distances. Optimal distance serves were 28% more likely to achieve high deviations. This study shows that the serve distance can be used as a simple, equipment-free coaching tool to achieve trajectory deviation of a float serve in training and in a match.
Advances in digital sports training have expanded opportunities to improve motor skill development among junior athletes. Virtual Reality (VR) combined with motion tracking technology provides immersive training environments and real-time biomechanical feedback that may enhance tennis performance. However, evidence regarding adaptive simulation-based VR systems for junior tennis athletes remains limited. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of integrating adaptive VR and motion tracking technology in optimizing motor skills among junior tennis athletes. A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test control group design was employed involving 60 junior tennis athletes aged 12–18 years from two tennis development centres in Bali, Indonesia. The experimental group (n = 30) received adaptive VR and motion tracking-based training integrated with conventional tennis practice, while the control group (n = 30) followed conventional training only. The intervention was conducted over twelve weeks with three training sessions per week. Motor performance was assessed through stroke accuracy, reaction time, movement coordination, and biomechanical consistency tests. Data were analysed using paired-sample t-tests, independent-sample t-tests, and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with a significance level of p < .05. The results showed that the experimental group achieved significantly greater improvements than the control group across all variables. Stroke accuracy increased by 24.8%, reaction time improved by 18.6%, movement coordination increased by 21.3%, and biomechanical consistency improved by 19.7%. MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate effect of the intervention on overall motor skill development (Wilks’ λ = 0.71, F(8, 108) = 5.84, p < .001). These findings indicate that adaptive VR and motion tracking-based training effectively enhances motor skill acquisition among junior tennis athletes and can serve as an innovative, evidence-based complement to conventional tennis coaching programs.
This exploratory cross-sectional study examined physical activity patterns, menstrual characteristics, and menstrual pain intensity in 53 young women (mean age 19.98 ± 0.72 years). Physical activity during the previous seven days was estimated using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire framework and expressed as MET-min/week, while menstrual pain during the most recent cycle was assessed on a 0–10 numerical rating scale. Severe pain was reported by 19 participants (35.8%), and 39 participants (73.6%) were classified in the high physical activity category. Total physical activity was not significantly associated with pain intensity (Spearman’s rho = .225, p = .105). Moderate physical activity showed a positive association with pain intensity (Spearman’s rho = .428, p = .002), but the cross-sectional design does not permit causal interpretation. Rather than supporting a simple protective effect of greater activity volume, the findings suggest that the relationship between physical activity and menstrual pain may depend on individual symptoms, behavioural responses, measurement context, and unmeasured psychological or clinical factors. Because the sample was small, narrowly distributed by age, and dominated by highly active participants, the results should be interpreted as preliminary. Future studies should use larger and more heterogeneous samples, objective activity monitoring, validated multidimensional dysmenorrhea instruments, and repeated assessments across several menstrual cycles.
The aim of this study was to analyse physiological and anthropometric characteristics of Croatian national football team players, with particular focus on blood lactate concentration, relative oxygen consumption, body height, body mass, body fat percentage, and playing position. The sample consisted of 17 elite football players. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed for all analysed variables. The average blood lactate concentration was 10.46 ± 1.12 mmol/L, while the average relative oxygen consumption was 60.91 ± 3.15 mL/kg/min. The players demonstrated highly developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities characteristic of elite football populations. Anthropometric and physiological profiles differed according to playing position, reflecting specific tactical and physical demands in modern football.
The aim of this study was to analyse technical and tactical performance indicators in the Croatian First Football League (SuperSport HNL) during the 2025/2026 competitive season. Match analysis has become an essential tool in modern football, allowing coaches, analysts, and researchers to identify performance patterns associated with successful outcomes. This study evaluated offensive and defensive parameters, possession-based indicators, passing efficiency, shots on target, expected goals (xG), pressing intensity, and situational variables related to match outcome. Data were collected from official league statistics and video analysis platforms across all league matches during the observed season. Variables included total passes, successful passes, possession percentage, shots, shots on target, expected goals, duels won, high-intensity pressing actions, recoveries in the final third, and set-piece efficiency. Descriptive statistics and inferential analyses were applied to determine differences between winning, drawing, and losing teams. The results demonstrated that winning teams achieved significantly greater passing accuracy, higher xG values, more successful high pressing sequences, and increased efficiency in transition phases. Teams positioned in the upper part of the league table also showed greater tactical compactness and offensive organization compared to lower-ranked teams. Furthermore, home teams demonstrated statistically significant advantages in ball possession and attacking efficiency. The findings contribute to the growing body of literature regarding notational analysis in elite football and provide practical implications for coaches, analysts, and performance specialists working within Croatian and European football environments.
The study aims to explore athletes' dietary supplement preferences: athletes of different levels and from different sports have been involved in the research, thus ensuring its complexity. In the article, a series of in-depth interviews with 30 respondents, mystery shopping, and an international literature analysis conducted using the PRISMA method are presented, which serve as a suitable basis for subsequent large-scale quantitative research. Based on the research covering 31 different sports, it can be said that the use of various dietary supplements is mainly characteristic of individual athletes and those who train partly or entirely in gyms. Hypothetically, four consumer groups could be identified based on consumer awareness and dietary supplement consumption, which are as follows: conscious athletes, rational curious consumers, influenceable changers, and trend followers. Higher-level and long-time athletes are the most conscious when choosing dietary supplements. For consumers, price, quality, and composition are the main considerations when purchasing dietary supplements.
Coach–athlete interaction represents a central relational resource in team sports and is closely linked to athletes’ motivation, psychological well-being, and sustained engagement. Yet, athletes often operate in climates where ‘going above and beyond’ for the team can be experienced not only as a voluntary contribution but also as an implicit expectation. Building on Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory and research on organizational citizenship behaviour in sport (OCB-S), this study examines (a) whether higher-quality coach–athlete interaction is associated with lower athlete burnout, and (b) whether athletes’ OCB functions as a boundary condition in this relationship. Survey data were collected from 250 adult athletes participating in team sports in Türkiye. Using PLS-SEM, the results showed that higher-quality coach–athlete interaction was negatively associated with athlete burnout. Moreover, OCB strengthened the negative association between coach–athlete interaction and burnout, such that the relationship was stronger at higher levels of OCB. These findings suggest that higher-quality coach–athlete interaction is associated with lower athlete burnout, particularly when athletes’ extra-role involvement remains meaningful and self-endorsed rather than merely compliant with team norms.
The game model is central to football coaching, yet its conceptual boundaries and its role in linking strategic intentions with practice remain insufficiently defined. Contemporary approaches explain representative learning, constraint manipulation and player adaptation, but provide limited guidance on how game-model principles should inform the design and evaluation of training tasks. This paper proposes the Model-to-Task Translation Process (MTTP), an integrative conceptual and decision-guiding framework that links coaching philosophy, game idea, game-model principles, training priorities, task constraints, learning environments and behavioural emergence. It draws selectively on Tactical Periodization, Ecological Dynamics, the Constraints-Led Approach, Nonlinear Pedagogy and Coaching Pedagogy while acknowledging their distinct analytical levels and theoretical assumptions. The MTTP positions the game model as the primary reference for deciding what should be developed, while ecological and pedagogical perspectives inform how practice opportunities are designed and regulated. Its distinctive contribution lies in specifying a recursive and empirically examinable translation pathway, distinguishing model–task alignment from training representativeness, and providing preliminary operational criteria, an applied football case and six testable propositions. The MTTP is presented as a conceptual proposition requiring empirical validation, not as a prescriptive or validated training method.
Physical activity (PA) is a cornerstone of hypertension management, but whether muscle mass influences its survival benefits remains unclear. The serum creatinine-to-cystatin C ratio (CCR) has been proposed as a surrogate marker of muscle mass, although it is also affected by renal function, nutritional status, and inflammation. This study examined the association between CCR and mortality in hypertensive adults and explored the role of PA intensity. This retrospective cohort study included 2,432 adults with essential hypertension from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg, or use of antihypertensive medication. Muscle mass was estimated using CCR, and PA was classified as inactive, moderate, or vigorous. All-cause mortality was obtained through linkage with the National Death Index. Covariates included age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, smoking status, body mass index (BMI), albumin, C-reactive protein (CRP), lipid profile, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Kaplan–Meier analyses and multivariable Cox regression models were used. Low CCR was associated with older age, female sex, higher CRP, and lower albumin levels. In multivariable analyses, low CCR independently predicted all-cause mortality and outperformed indicators such as BMI and lipid measures. Stratified analyses suggested a stronger association between low CCR and mortality among participants performing vigorous PA (HR 1.95) than among those with moderate PA (HR 1.20) or inactivity (HR 1.29), although the interaction between CCR and PA was not significant (p-interaction = .21). Exercise was associated with survival in those with higher CCR. CCR is an independent predictor of mortality in hypertensive adults and adds value beyond conventional markers. Low CCR may be associated with reduced survival benefits from vigorous PA, although this finding requires confirmation. Incorporating CCR into risk assessment may help identify patients who could benefit from muscle-preserving strategies and resistance training.
The conventional coaching method has been altered by how artificial intelligence (AI) is being applied to sports science by including the predictive analysis, real-time biomechanical feedback, workload optimization, and injury-prevention models. Although the use of AI-assisted coaching technology has become more popular at all levels of performance, the levels of quantitative synthesis of the implemented technology are not abundant. The subject matter was reviewed and meta-analysed to conduct a systematic review of information this time based on the publications published between 2010 and 2026, identifying the impacts of AI-guided intervention on sports performance outcomes. In accordance to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 39 of the studies were incorporated in the qualitative synthesis, and 17 of them met the criteria of quantitative meta-analyses. The calculations of the standardized mean differences were based on Hedges g and the random-effects model. The pooled study findings revealed that there is a statistically significant, moderate-to-large positive AI-assisted coaching on overall sports performance (g = 0.67, 95% CI [0.51, 0.83], p < .001) and heterogeneity that is moderate (I 2 = 58%). Subgroup analyses indicated that the strongest effects were on technical (g = 0.74), then tactical (g = 0.69), psychological (g = 0.62), injury prevention/rehabilitation (g = 0.59) and physical (g = 0.55) performance. The meta-assessment of the publication bias had no important influence of small studies. The results taken together support the idea that the evolution of the AI-based coaching technologies is extremely promising in increasing the performance in the multidimensional context and can be used a highly efficient tool to support the decisions within the contemporary sporting systems. Future studies need to target longitudinal design of experiments, anticipated resultant measures, and ethics governing frameworks of sustainable AI incorporation in sport.
Introduction: Boxing is a high-intensity intermittent sport in which performance depends on the ability to produce effective punches and sustain their intensity during repeated efforts. Punching performance, physiological responses, and lower-limb neuromuscular characteristics are key factors in understanding boxing-specific performance; however, current evidence remains fragmented. Objective: To systematically analyse the literature on punching performance, physiological responses, and lower-limb neuromuscular characteristics in boxing, and to examine the relationships between these variables. Methods: The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and was structured according to the PICOS model. Literature searches were conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar for studies published between January 2010 and January 2026. After screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, 46 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: A high methodological heterogeneity was observed across study designs, samples, protocols, measurement tools, and outcomes. Punching performance was the most investigated domain, while physiological responses mainly included heart rate, oxygen uptake, blood lactate, and perceived exertion. Lower-limb neuromuscular characteristics were less explored, and no study directly assessed muscle–tendon stiffness. Conclusions: Current evidence remains fragmented and future studies should adopt integrated approaches to improve performance assessment and training prescription in boxing.
Sports analytics has become increasingly central to applied sport science, yet its conceptual development remains unevenly theorized. This study mapped the evolution of sports analytics research from 2015 to 2025 using a Scopus-based bibliometric analysis of 1,211 documents. Descriptive bibliometrics, co-authorship analysis, country collaboration mapping, keyword co-occurrence analysis, trend-topic analysis, bibliographic coupling, and co-citation analysis were used to examine the field’s development, conceptual structure, and intellectual foundations. Findings show that sports analytics has expanded rapidly and is increasingly organized around athlete monitoring, performance analysis, machine learning, training load, artificial intelligence, and decision support. The literature reflects a shift from descriptive measurement toward predictive and computationally mediated forms of applied sport science. However, this growth also exposes unresolved tensions involving model interpretability, data quality, ethical governance, and the translation of analytics into practice. To address this, the study proposes a responsible and integrative framework that positions sports analytics as an interconnected system of data capture, computational processing, human interpretation, applied performance action, and ethical governance. The review argues that sports analytics becomes meaningful only when technological sophistication is aligned with valid, interpretable, and athlete-centred decision-making.
Multidirectional demands in team sports emphasise eccentric hamstring strength, as the hamstrings play a critical role in modulating ground reaction forces during deceleration and change of direction (COD). A common method to assess limb asymmetry is the Nordic Hamstring Exercise (NHE), an eccentric movement which derives metrics such as maximum force and impulse which are associated with improved linear acceleration in team-sport athletes. The primary aim was to examine how NHE-derived symmetries and limb females; age 20.37 +/- 1.47 years) underwent 30-m linear and COD sprints, alongside bilateral NHE on the VALD Nordbord measuring maximum force, average force, and impulse. Non-parametric data were analysed using ART followed by general linear models in SPSS, with fixed factors of symmetry grouping, limb, and direction (for directional metrics) and a significance of p < .05. No significant effects or interactions emerged for symmetry grouping across metrics including MDSA area, area percentage, acceleration, directional velocity and directional acceleration, and NHE forces and impulse. Limb grouping showed significant effects on area percentage (p = .02; left higher) and maximum force (p = .05; right higher), while directional grouping revealed highly significant effects (p < .001) with sharper angles yielding lower acceleration and velocity. These findings suggest NHE symmetries do not substantially influence COD performance in this cohort, whereas limb-specific differences influence area percentage and maximum force, and sharper turn angles substantially reduce acceleration and velocity.
This study aimed to assess the impact of 6mg/kg of caffeine (CAFF) on running performance and technique. Using a randomized, double-blind, crossover structure, 14 subjects ran 2.5 kilometres on a treadmill, without (PRE) and with (POST) fatigue, under 3 conditions with 7 days as a wash-out: control (CON), placebo (PLA), and CAFF. CON was always assessed first. The results showed that POST, there was less flight time (d = 0.85), more step rate (d = 0.61-0.62) and less stride length in both legs (d = 0.61-0.63), less knee flexion (d = 0.75), and a slower performance (d = 0.72). Compared to CON, PLA increased contact time in both legs (d = 0.70-1.01) while improving performance (d = 1.00), and CAFF reduced step rate (d = 0.85-0.86) and increased stride length in both legs (d = 0.82-0.86) while also enhancing performance (d = 1.01). CAFF PRE showed a faster time compared to CAFF POST, PLA POST, CON PRE, and CON POST (d = 1.17-1.92), and PLA PRE was faster than CON PRE, CON POST, and CAFF POST (d = 1.19-1.50). In conclusion, CAFF improved running performance compared to CON, suggesting a front-loaded strategy, while PLA also enhanced performance relative to CON. Furthermore, CAFF, PLA, and fatigue modified running kinematics. This trial was prospectively registered on Clinical Trials (NCT06039358; September 2023) and supported by "AGAUR-FI ajuts".
Physical activities are reviewed a core pillar for enriching students’ campus life under China’s “Double Reduction” policy. But the psychological benefits of non-player students remain untested. This study examines whether the psychosocial benefits of campus sports extend to all student roles. We conducted a cross-sectional design. Data were collected from 514 students participating in a noon-recess sports league as players (19.07%), supporting staff (20.23%), and spectators (60.51%). The study utilized MGCFA, Welch’s ANOVA and Two One-Sided Tests (TOST) to confirm measurement invariance. There are two main findings: the scores of the Sense of Community in Sport (SCS) between students were statistically indifferent; the SCS independently accounted for 34.4% of the variance in school belongingness. These findings proved that whether students participate a competition, they can gain psychologically and increase belongingness from the environment. In promoting the psychosocial well-being and mental health of students, physical activities in campus might serve as a scalable, low-cost instrument; educators and policy makers should pay attention to building a more inclusive league environment for the majority.
Running-related knee injuries are common in long-distance runners and may lead to persistent biomechanical adaptations even after return to sport. This study aimed to compare spatiotemporal parameters of the running gait cycle between long-distance runners with and without a history of knee injury during incremental treadmill running. Thirty male long-distance recreational runners (15 with previous knee injury and 15 controls) were assessed using three-dimensional motion capture at 9, 11, and 13 km/h. Temporal variables included stride time, stance time, swing time, phase distribution, and cadence. Mixedmodel repeated measures analyses and Mann-Whitney U tests were applied (p < .05). No significant main effects or interactions were observed, indicating a preserved global temporal organization across speeds. However, runners with a history of injury demonstrated greater stance time at 9 km/h (right limb) and 11 km/h (left limb). These findings suggest the presence of subtle, speed-dependent adaptations in temporal running mechanics, particularly during the stance phase. Such localized adjustments may be relevant for understanding injury recurrence and guiding biomechanical assessment in running populations. injury recurrence and for guiding biomechanical assessment in running populations.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disease that often leads to impairments in hand function, these limitations affect their quality of life. The use of technological devices in the parameterization and rehabilitation of manual dexterity in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) has gained significant attention due to their potential to improve the assessment and rehabilitation for the upper limb. This systematic review aims to provide an overview of the technological devices used for assessing and rehabilitating hand function in pwMS. It focuses on sample size, participant characteristics, tools and methodologies, intervention types, frequency and duration, and the anatomical regions and variables analysed. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus, identified studies using technological devices for hand function assessment and rehabilitation in PwMS. Data were extracted on sample size, participant demographics (age, sex, MS type, and disease duration), tools used, intervention protocols and primary variables analysed. The review included 15 studies with a total of 865 pwMS, 28 healthy persons and 2123 healthcare professionals. The studies employed a variety of tool, tests, activities and protocols, going from traditional appliance to sensor-equipped devices. Rehabilitation protocols varied in frequency, duration and in format, with sessions lasting between 40 and 60 minutes, conducted 2–6 times per week over 4–8 weeks and conducted in person or telematic. Technological interventions show potential to improve hand function and treatment adherence. However, further research is needed to validate their predictive performance, optimize intervention protocols, and address challenges such as accessibility and long-term effectiveness.
Shoulder pain remains one of the most common and persistent problems in competitive swimming. Unlike acute traumatic injuries, swimmer's shoulder usually develops gradually through the combined effects of repetitive stroke motion, fluctuating training load, movement compensation, and insufficient recovery. Although an expanding body of research has examined this topic from the perspectives of biomechanics, training load, muscle function, and rehabilitation, the overall knowledge structure and developmental trajectory of the field remain insufficiently clarified. To address this gap, the present study conducted a bibliometric analysis of swimmer's shoulder research using the Web of Science Core Collection. A total of 195 publications published between 2015 and 2025 were included. Publication trends, core authors, leading journals, country-level contributions, relative growth rate, doubling time, field-normalised citation score, and keyword co-occurrence patterns were analysed with CiteSpace and VOSviewer. The results show a sustained increase in research output and the emergence of a relatively stable but heterogeneous academic network. Clear differences were observed between high-output and high-impact contributors, particularly at the journal and country levels. Keyword co-occurrence, clustering, and timeline analyses indicate a transition from symptom-oriented research toward mechanism-based and intervention-oriented approaches, with increasing attention to biomechanics, functional assessment, monitoring, prevention, and rehabilitation. The study proposes a three-level framework of symptom identification, mechanism explanation, and intervention-oriented management. This framework integrates fragmented findings and clarifies how swimmer's shoulder research has evolved from describing pain to explaining mechanisms and informing applied prevention and rehabilitation strategies.
