Instrumental insemination is an important tool in honey bee breeding as it provides controlled mating, genetic improvement, and conservation of valuable traits. This technique is widely practised in the European honey bee (Apis mellifera), but its application in the Indian honey bee (Apis cerana indica) is limited due to species-specific biological, behavioural and technical challenges. In this review, honey bee biology relevant to instrumental insemination is analysed, and a comparative assessment of the technique in A. mellifera and A. cerana indica is presented. Key aspects such as caste differentiation and sex determination, drone congregation areas, natural mating behaviour, procedures of instrumental insemination, and factors influencing insemination success such as queen age, semen collection and handling, carbon dioxide exposure, and post-insemination management are discussed. In A. cerana indica, smaller body size, reduced spermathecal capacity, and increased sensitivity to handling are identified as major constraints affecting insemination efficiency and post-insemination performance. Methodological limitations, procedural standardization, and operator-dependent variability influencing insemination outcomes are also analyzed. Understanding these interspecific differences is essential for refining species-specific protocols and expanding the application of instrumental insemination for selective breeding, genetic conservation, and sustainable apiculture. The review also outlines future research prospects aimed at improving efficiency and promoting wider adoption of instrumental insemination, particularly in indigenous honey bee species.
Pollinators are vital to agricultural productivity, yet their populations are declining due to anthropogenic disturbances, including pesticide use. This study evaluated the acute toxicity of selected insecticides to two bee species, the honey bee (Apis mellifera) and the small carpenter bee (Ceratina smaragdula), using laboratory and field experiments. Under laboratory conditions, emamectin benzoate exhibited the highest toxicity to C. smaragdula, with a 12-hour LC₅₀ of 4.69 µg/mL. Moderate toxicity was observed for flubendiamide (LC₅₀ = 60.57 µg/mL) and chlorantraniliprole (LC₅₀ = 57.64 µg/mL), whereas the remaining insecticides showed higher LC₅₀ values ranging from 141.41 to 846.77 µg/mL. After 24 hours, emamectin benzoate remained the most toxic (LC₅₀ = 1.14 µg/mL), and similar toxicity patterns were observed for the other insecticides. In A. mellifera, emamectin benzoate was also the most toxic insecticide at both 12 hours (LC₅₀ = 9.64 µg/mL) and 24 hours (LC₅₀ = 5.10 µg/mL). Moderate toxicity was recorded for flubendiamide and chlorantraniliprole, while the other insecticides exhibited lower toxicity, with 24-hour LC₅₀ values ranging from 56.35 to 589.92 µg/mL. Field applications resulted in significant differences in bee abundance between treated and untreated plots, with the highest abundance in untreated plots and the lowest in bifenthrin-treated plots. Overall, bee abundance increased over time, peaking 72 hours after insecticide application. These findings highlight the need for further investigation into the long-term effects of pesticides, particularly on understudied solitary bee species across diverse ecosystems.
Stingless bee colony multiplication is vital for expanding agricultural pollination and sustainable honey production, yet it is often constrained by slow natural establishment after division in standard hive systems. This study evaluated the use of red earthen pots as an ideal, natural artificial hive to facilitate the successful division and management of stingless bee colonies. Three different hive types, viz., wooden square hives, red earthen pots, and wooden rectangular hives, were evaluated for the colony establishment after division. Significantly greater percentage of colony establishment was recorded in red earthen pots (62.55%) with initiation of forage activity in a lesser time period (8.80 ± 0.84 days). The study found that using localized red earthen pots will help in faster colony establishment after division and sustainable multiplication. Internal hive architecture, such as the pillars and involucrum, was recorded at a significantly shorter period after colony division in red earthen pots (6.40 ± 1.14 days). They provide a durable, porous, and well-insulated environment that mimics natural tree hollows, protecting the brood from heat and moisture and enabling faster colony establishment. Pot hives provide a sustainable alternative to wooden boxes and allow for easy inspection and harvesting for hobbyists.
The star fruit tree (Averrhoa carambola L.) has knowledge gaps regarding its reproductive dynamics and interactions with pollinators under field conditions. This study aimed to characterize the phenology, floral biology, and efficiency of biotic visitors in fruit set in Brazil. Flowering occurred from December to February (~90 days), with synchrony among individuals. The flowers are hermaphroditic, ephemeral (with a longevity of 12 h), and exhibit morning anthesis (07:00), with stigmatic receptivity maintained throughout the floral opening period. Floral density was high, with an average of 21.22 ± 11.36 flowers per inflorescence. The visiting entomofauna was predominantly Hymenoptera (95.3%), with Trigona spinipes (58.3%) and Apis mellifera (37%) the most prominent. However, resource segregation was observed: T. spinipes acted primarily as a resin collector, while A. mellifera collected nectar exclusively, exhibiting a significantly higher foraging rate (10.15 ± 1.28 flowers/min) compared to T. spinipes (4.69 ± 1.40 flowers/min). In pollination tests, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between all treatments: pollination directed by A. mellifera resulted in the highest initial fruit set (3.1%), followed by free pollination (1.9%) and wind/phyllo pollination (1.2%). Total isolation (paper bags) produced only 0.5% of fruits, confirming that spontaneous self-pollination is inefficient due to floral morphology. It is concluded that, despite the abundance of T. spinipes, it does not effectively contribute to pollination because it focuses on non-reproductive resources. A. mellifera is the most efficient pollinator. Its targeted introduction is essential to mitigate pollination deficits and increase star fruit productivity.
Many insect species are known only by their scientific names, with scarce information about their biology, even when they are widely distributed and promising predators in crop environments. For predatory species such as social wasps, foraging rhythm, prey diversity, flight range, and colony size are cornerstones of characterizing their impact on the environment. Here, we studied these aspects for the widespread social wasp Agelaia centralis (Cameron, 1907), in a Colombian oil palm plantation. We recorded the foraging rhythm and the type of items brought to the nest. A preliminary flight distance was assessed. Colony sizes were calculated using Schumacher-Eschmeyer and Lincoln-Petersen estimators. The round flights ranged between 198 and 325 individuals/10 min, with a peak in the morning and another in the afternoon. The efficiency index for load items ranged between 18.2 and 19.7. Between 87% and 90% of the solid items carried to the nest were prey. These included Araneae, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera, but most samples (>72%) were unidentifiable due to malaxation. Wasps released up to 400 m were recaptured from the nest. Estimated colony sizes ranged between 893.6 and 6122.4 individuals. Between 5% and 28% of individuals of a colony are foraging within a 10 min observation slot. The study sets basic information to calculate the impact of this social wasp as an arthropod predator in an agricultural environment.
This paper describes a new subterranean species of stingless bee, Tetragonula yikhumensis Odyuo sp. nov., with associated males from Wokha district of Nagaland, India. It is the largest species of stingless bees found in India. It is distinctive in shape, size, colouration pubescence and especially their genital capsule and its associated sterna. The S5 apicomedial region has a parabolic concavity, the apicomedial process of S6 is urn shaped, the gonostylus has a lateral origin and the penis valve has a distinctive shape. This paper supports many prior studies that have emphasised the significance of males for distinguishing close species and for erecting new ones as the samples studied exhibited variation. A brief account of the nest structure as well as an updated checklist of stingless bees found in India is also provided.
This study addresses the behavior and ecology of the solitary bee Centris aenea. The objective was to verify the philopatry of this bee’s females. The study was carried out in a nest aggregation in the Restinga area in Coroa Vermelha, Santa Cruz de Cabrália, Bahia. To investigate nesting occurrence and aspects, monthly visits were conducted between December 2021 and December 2022. During the reproductive period, emergence traps and dorsal-thorax marking of emerging females were used for subsequent verification of these in the foundation of new nests. Centris aenea proved to be a univoltine and protandric bee. Furthermore, of the 14 marked emerging females, 11 returned to nest in the aggregate. Thus, the philopatry suggested in some studies for solitary bee species was confirmed in this study.
Habitat loss and fragmentation are synergetic drivers reshaping and threatening biodiversity. Although several studies have evaluated the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on species diversity, understanding how functional traits are linked to these responses is a relatively recent approach. Ants are fundamental components of different ecosystems, especially in tropical forests where they are dominant. We analyze how functional traits of ants respond to forest cover loss and the increasing edge density in 20 forest sites in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We found a strong relationship between functional traits and both predictors. Specifically, forest fragments embedded in landscapes with higher edge density (i.e., a higher total length of habitat edges per unit area) showed ants with larger appendages (legs, antennal scape) and larger clypeus than those in landscapes with lower edge density. In addition, forest amount and the overall anthropic characteristics of the landscapes jointly affected ant species with larger mandibles. Altogether, our study identified a set of morphological traits correlated with the higher vulnerability of ant species to changes in landscape structure. Implications for insect conservation: we have seen that species with smaller clypeus, leg, and antennal scape are more susceptible to edge effects. Identifying the key species’ attributes making them more susceptible to the impacts of habitat loss and edge effects will help to set more precise conservation goals for vulnerable ecosystems such as tropical rainforests. Keywords: Edge effects, Formicidae, fragmentation, habitat loss.
Understanding the effects of insecticides on bees is essential for proper management and to support pollinator conservation. To evaluate the lethal and sublethal effects of an insecticide formulated as a mixture, Acetamiprid + Pyriproxyfen, on Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), through residual contact on melon leaves as a function of different exposure times. Bees were exposed to two commercial doses of Acetamiprid + Pyriproxyfen, a minimum of 200 ml/ha (0.08 g a.i./L of Acetamiprid + 0.04 g a.i./L of Pyriproxyfen) and a maximum of 300 ml/ha (0.12 g a.i./L of Acetamiprid + 0.06 g a.i./L of Pyriproxyfen). Distilled water was used as an absolute control, and the insecticide Thiamethoxam (0.3 g a.i./L) was used as a positive control. After exposure, mortality and motor disturbances were evaluated over 48 hours. The flight capacity of the surviving bees was assessed. Residual contact with Acetamiprid + Pyriproxyfen caused bee mortality rates higher than those observed in the absolute control and lower than in the positive control. However, no significant differences were found between bees exposed to the minimum dose at 1 hour post-exposure (38.9%) and those exposed to the maximum dose at 1, 2, and 3 hours post-exposure (49.2%, 45.8%, and 32.5%, respectively). Regardless of dose and exposure time, residual contact resulted in a median lethal time (LT₅₀) of 85.4 hours. Bees exposed to the insecticide exhibited reduced flight capacity, reaching only the lowest levels of the flight tower. Exposure to Acetamiprid + Pyriproxyfen resulted in a significant mortality rate and a reduction in the flight capacity of honey bees.
Nutrition plays an important role in the health and development of honeybee castes. A protein-enriched diet improves bees’ health and physiological condition. In this study, the effects of four different diets: (polyfloral pollen, monofloral pollen, soybean, and candy as a control) on the physiological characteristics of worker bees (hypopharyngeal glands, HPG), dry weight of thorax, longevity, and food consumption) were investigated. The data were recorded three times (4, 8, and 12 days) post-exposure to the tested diets. The results revealed that food consumption by worker bees was significantly higher in the pollen-tested diets (polyfloral and monofloral pollen) than in soybean and candy diets. Regarding longevity, there was no statistically significant difference among the four diets. There was a statistically significant difference in HPG and dry weight; the highest values were observed in pollen diets. These results suggest that diets containing protein and lipids support the health and development of honeybee workers.
The ant tribe Platythyreini comprises a single genus, Platythyrea Roger, 1863, with 40 described species. Platythyrea exigua Kempf, 1964 is a Neotropical species and, in Brazil, had previously been recorded only in Mato Grosso and Rondônia (Amazon biome) and in Bahia (Atlantic Forest biome), the latter considered a possibly isolated population. Here, we report the first record of P. exigua from the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais State, based on specimens sampled in Mata do Paraíso, Viçosa, in 2022. This new record represents an important biogeographical link between previously disjunct populations in the Amazonian and Atlantic Forests. In addition, we provide the first nuclear genome size value for P. exigua (1C = 0.266 ± 0.01 pg), which is markedly lower than values reported for other Ponerinae species. Together, these data highlight the importance of integrating faunal surveys with nuclear 1C values to improve our understanding of Neotropical ant diversity and distribution.
Five species of social parasites within the leaf-cutting ant genera Acromyrmex and Pseudoatta have been documented. Among these, Acromyrmex fowleri, an inquiline social parasite of A. rugosus, was previously recorded exclusively from the coastal zone of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil, where specimens were collected between 1992 and 1996. Despite extensive sampling efforts in the region, no new records have emerged. This study presents a significant expansion in the distribution of A. fowleri, based on a single dealate female collected in 2005 in Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul, which is located within the Pantanal biome. This record extends the species’ biogeographic range by approximately 1,900 km westward and 600 km southward from Ilhéus. Interestingly, the ecological conditions in the Pantanal biome contrast sharply with those of the parasite’s previously known restinga habitat. The association of collection events with nearby bodies of water suggests that A. fowleri may be attracted to humid microhabitats, which could elucidate the challenges in detecting its rarely sampled sexual forms. Our findings indicate that A. fowleri possesses a broader distribution than previously acknowledged, suggesting that additional specimens may be present in entomological collections throughout the host’s extensive biogeographic range.
Most genera of Apicotermitinae described in the Neotropics are still regarded as monotypic. In this paper, we describe a second species for the so far monotypic genus Chasitermes: Chasitermes tupan sp. nov., discovered in the Amazon Rainforest. The worker is characterized by external features, such as a strongly dilated tibia, and internal features, such as a very dilated first procodeal segment and long enteric valve seating. The description of this new taxon within the Apicotermitinae emphasizes the diversity of species of this subfamily, which remains largely unexplored in the Neotropics.
Coptotermes formosanus, a worldwide pest, inflicts large losses on agriculture, forestry, construction, and other industries. As efficient, environmentally friendly pest control methods, microbial biopesticides are widely used to manage major pests. We previously isolated an Akanthomyces lecanii strain with strong insecticidal activity against termites. However, the interaction between the biocontrol agent and termites is still unknown. In this study, PacBio single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing technology and Illumina RNA-seq sequencing technology were used to explore the transcriptomic differences in C. formosanus before and after A. lecanii infection. A total of 7,882,407 full-length transcripts were obtained. Single genes were further annotated using the NR, GO, KEGG, COG/KOG, Swiss-Prot, and KEGG homology public databases. A total of 2,782 differentially expressed genes were identified, including 1,440 upregulated genes and 1,342 downregulated genes. The expression of the Toll signaling pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, detoxification metabolism, and immune-related genes, including scavenger receptor, apolipophorin, Cdc42, Integrin, Toll, serine protease, and transferrin genes, may be related to A. lecanii infection. This work not only greatly enriches the gene annotation resources of C. formosanus but also provides a new perspective for understanding the fungal immune defense mechanisms of social insects at the molecular level. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the development of new immunosuppressive agents.
Significant losses in honey bee colonies have been reported worldwide, largely due to pathogens affecting bee health. Among these, Nosema species and Black queen cell virus (BQCV) are particularly prominent. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Nosema spp. and BQCV in honey bees, investigate the genetic diversity of BQCV, and assess Nosema spp. and BQCV potential association. Adult honey bee samples were collected from 62 randomly selected apiaries in Hatay Province, Türkiye. Nosema spp. were detected and identified at the species level using a multiplex PCR assay, while BQCV was detected by a one-step real-time RT-PCR assay. BQCV was found in 21.0% of the apiaries, and Nosema ceranae infection in 48.4%. Co-infection occurred in 8.1% of the apiaries. No significant association was observed between N. ceranae and BQCV positivity. However, shared use of beekeeping equipment among hives was significantly associated with both pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis of the BQCV helicase gene revealed that isolates identified in this study clustered with Asian-origin sequences, suggesting the circulation of different BQCV genotypes in Türkiye. These findings provide insight into pathogen prevalence and co-occurrence in honey bee colonies. Further studies are warranted to characterize BQCV genotypes and to explore the relationship between Nosema spp. and BQCV in Türkiye in greater detail.
Urbanization is a major driver of biodiversity loss and profoundly alters the structure of species interaction networks. Nevertheless, urban forest remnants may still sustain structurally and functionally diverse pollinator networks. Here, we characterize the structural and functional organization of a plant-bee interaction network within a large Atlantic Forest fragment embedded in a tropical metropolis in northeastern Brazil. We quantified 4,700 plant-bee interactions involving 19 plant and 80 bee species and evaluated network connectance, nestedness, modularity, specialization, and species- level functional roles. The network was relatively sparse, exhibited low nestedness, moderate modularity, and high specialization. Most plant and bee species occupied peripheral positions, whereas a small subset of abundant eusocial stingless bees, particularly Trigona spinipes (Fabricius) and Scaptotrigona tubiba (Smith), functioned as connectors linking interaction modules. No species acted as a true network hub, indicating limited integration among modules. Together, these patterns reveal a network dominated by a few generalists and many low-degree species, consistent with functional filtering in urban landscapes. Despite this, the remnant supported ecologically important interactions involving both generalist and specialized pollinator guilds. Our findings highlight the ecological value of large, heterogeneous urban forest patches, such as Pituaçu Metropolitan Park, and their role in maintaining pollination network structure and function, with important implications for the planning and conservation of urban green areas in tropical cities.
Colombia, located within the Tropical Andes Hotspot, is one of the most biodiverse countries, yet its social wasp diversity remains insufficiently documented. An update of the social wasps of Colombia is conducted, based on information from literature as well as on examination in collections. A total of 275 species and 26 subspecies of Polistinae in Colombia were recorded, with 161 species and 11 subspecies belonging to Epiponini, 86 species and 4 subspecies to Mischocyttarini, and 28 species and 11 subspecies to Polistini. New geographical records are given, highlighting the country’s unique faunal composition. This study provides an updated taxonomic list of Polistinae in Colombia compiling 22 species to previous lists, all of these exclusive to Colombia and offers an identification key for the genera occurring in the country. These findings highlight the need for continued research, given the potential for undiscovered species and further research on the diversity of the Polistinae.
In this paper, we present the first termite records from the oceanic main island of Fernando de Noronha, based mainly on alates collected with malaise and light traps. Five termite species were present: Cryptotermes havilandi, Coptotermes gestroi, Nasutitermes corniger, and two undetermined species of Neotermes. The first three species are invasive urban pests, while the Neotermes species are probably new. Nasutitermes corniger was also sampled from arboreal nests.
The dearth period, characterized by the scarcity of natural nectar and pollen, poses a significant threat to the health and productivity of Apis mellifera colonies. This study was conducted at the BSRI Apiary, Ishurdi, Pabna, during the 2019-2020 cropping season to assess brood development and resource storage. Two wooden honeybee rearing boxes, along with 7 (seven) frames, were selected. This study investigated the efficacy of two supplemental feeding regimens – a carbohydrate-only diet (Sugar syrup, T1) and a carbohydrate-protein diet (Pulse + Sugar diet, T2) – compared with a non-fed control (T3) across various parameters. The experiment tracked changes in Brood Cell (Egg, Larvae), Sealed Brood, Pollen Cell, Honey Cell, and Empty Cell counts from a primary to a final data point. The results demonstrated that the Pulse + Sugar diet (T2) significantly outperformed the other treatments, resulting in the highest final counts for Brood Cell (926.14a) and Honey Cell (784.57a). T2 also showed the largest percentage increase in Brood Cell (39.77%) and Sealed Brood (35.37%). Statistical analysis (LSD at 5%) confirmed that T2’s final Brood Cell and Honey Cell counts were significantly higher than T1 and T3. The control group (T3) experienced a severe decline, 71.52% change in Brood Cell, highlighting the nutritional stress of the dearth period. These findings confirm that a protein-rich supplement is critical for stimulating robust brood development and resource accumulation in honey bee colonies during periods of nutritional scarcity.
The following piece is unusual in all respects, as it does not follow the rigorous objective nature of a scientific review. As a fair warning, it is instead a rather personal opinion piece, so as to hopefully generate much-needed discussions within a relatively small field of research, yet a remarkably persistent one. Here, I have the opportunity to express a personal perspective and share my experiences about the general field of termite biological control research, and I truly hope that the obvious frustration permeating from these lines will be processed by the reader as a friendly -yet realistic- analysis of the termite biological control endeavor. From interacting with many colleagues in the past two decades while sharing my pessimistic views on the topic, I noticed two opposite reactions: the first one was in the lines of “we all already know, Thomas, why do you keep beating on that dead horse?,” while the second one was more like “You can’t say that Thomas, we just need more innovative research to make it work!” Such discrepancies in reactions reflect the two mutually exclusive realities that I personally have to interact with regularly, as a solicited reviewer and as a reader keeping up with the termite literature. Consequently, the writing process of the following opinion is inherently tainted with value judgment -some would say ‘incendiary’- but I find it most genuinely necessary so as to move the discussion into a non-candid realm, which remains at the core of the issue. Finally, while I may be wrong on some of these statements, as a putative research breakthrough may change the equation in a distant future, I may stay correct for a foreseeable one. Overall, I hope this piece will help any new venturer on this topic to be skeptical of the accumulated literature and to take the time to look at the larger picture before engaging in such research. In this opinion piece, 1) I review the termite biological control from an academic perspective, and 2) I then discuss what happened to this field of research since 2011 while highlighting the lingering problems surrounding termite biological control research.
