Gymnastic rings represent one of the most distinctive apparatuses in men’s artistic gymnastics, characterized by a unique combination of strength, stability, and technical precision. This historical review examines the evolution of gymnastic rings from their earliest documented use in acrobatic and circus performances to their contemporary form as a standardized Olympic apparatus. Drawing upon historical literature, archival documents, technical manuals, patents, and gymnastics sources from the nineteenth century to the present, the study traces the development of ring design, construction materials, suspension systems, and competition standards. The findings indicate that rings originated as dynamic “flying rings” used primarily in circus and physical education settings, particularly within the German Turnen movement and later the Sokol physical culture system. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, substantial variations existed in ring shape, material composition, and hanging mechanisms, leading to debates regarding apparatus standardization. Progressive technological innovations transformed the apparatus from leather-covered metal and triangular rings suspended on hemp ropes into circular laminated wooden rings supported by steel cables, swivels, and shock-absorbing systems. Key milestones included the transition from flying rings to still rings, the adoption of wooden hoops, the development of improved suspension systems, and the implementation of the Reuther frame design, which significantly enhanced apparatus stability. These developments were closely associated with increasing routine complexity and growing biomechanical understanding of the substantial forces acting on gymnasts during static and dynamic elements. The contemporary ring apparatus reflects the convergence of historical tradition, engineering innovation, and biomechanical research. Its evolution demonstrates how advances in apparatus design have contributed to athlete safety, technical execution, and the progression of performance standards, ultimately shaping rings into one of the most demanding and iconic disciplines of modern artistic gymnastics.
Jumping abilities in artistic and rhythmic female gymnasts differ in technical execution, training methods, and performance objectives, reflecting distinct demands of each discipline. The study's goal was to compare jumping abilities, such as squat jump, counter movement jump, continuous jumps straight-leg, and continuous jumps bent-leg, between artistic and rhythmic gymnasts. Nineteen volunteer women’s gymnasts (i.e., 10 artistic and 9 rhythmic gymnasts) from Tunisia's national time participated in this study. Kinetic analysis of jumping performance was conducted using a portable force-plate Kistler Quattro Jump. In addition, stiffness index and reactive strength index were calculated. The independent samples T-test results indicated a significant difference in counter movement jump and continuous jumps bent-leg force and power between women’s artistic and rhythmic gymnasts. We concluded that the women’s artistic gymnasts have a great force and peak power, in the single jump such as the counter movement jump making it the most explosive gymnast. In contrast, rhythmic gymnasts demonstrated the best performance in the continuous jump bent-leg with a greater relative force and power.
In Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG), men are gradually emerging in a practice historically developed for women. One significant variation for men originates in Japan in the mid-1930s, featuring distinct apparatus and rules. This paper explores the Japanese style of RG, an underexplored area with limited accessible resources and few participating countries. We conducted a systematic literature review and semi-structured interviews with athletes, former athletes, academics, managers, and coaches from various countries. Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to interpret the data. Our findings highlight the historical development of RG for men in Japan, its unique characteristics, and Japan's efforts to internationalize the sport. However, internationalization and the organization of international championships have not had the expected impact. In addition to financial support and translated rules, countries receiving Japanese coaches must adapt the sport to their local contexts. We recommend that Japan prioritize expanding the sport domestically, and then university-level engagement with other countries before launching broader international programs. Additionally, leveraging technology, such as video classes with subtitles and making the Code of Points accessible online, could help overcome language barriers and promote wider understanding of this distinct sport.
This study investigates how the coach-athlete relationship influences athletes’ sporting careers. The research involved seven female athletes from a high-performance Rhythmic Gymnastics team. Adopting an exploratory-descriptive approach, data were collected through semi-structured interviews, complemented by bibliographic and documentary analysis, and interpreted through reflective thematic analysis. The analysis revealed three themes converging on participants’ experiences with coaches, the impact on their pathways, and the meanings attributed to these experiences. The participants emphasized the importance of emotional bonds, consistent support, constructive feedback, open communication, and mutual trust in fostering personal and athletic growth. However, they also reported negative experiences, including coaches’ emotional volatility, communication barriers, psychological harassment, and career-related frustrations that ultimately led to their decision to retire. The participants reframed their experiences, recognizing them as valuable lessons crucial to identity formation. This does not negate the necessity for critical reflection on recurring issues in the sport, such as excessive pressure for results, early specialization, and barriers to open communication. The findings suggest that authoritarian coaching environments, characterized by power imbalances, impede effective communication, normalize abusive practices, and intensify coach-athlete conflicts. As practical recommendations, we advocate for strategies to cultivate supportive and equitable relationships, including safe spaces for dialogue, activities that strengthen team spirit, balanced feedback mechanisms, and strategies to prevent abuses.
This study investigated the role of teaching experience in delivering gymnastics content in Slovak primary schools, offering evidence for future interventions and curriculum development. A total of 1 246 primary school teachers participated in a cross-sectional, quantitative study using an online questionnaire. Participants were divided into two cohorts: teachers with ˂ 10 years (N = 508) of teaching experience and teachers with ≥ 10 years (N = 738) of teaching experience. Descriptive statistics and chi-square tests (χ²) were used to identify significant differences between the groups across various indicators. Both cohorts identified Gymnastics and Dance as among the most demanding areas of Physical Education curriculum. Teachers with ≥ 10 years of teaching experience more frequently used traditional gymnastics apparatus, whereas teachers with ˂ 10 years of teaching experience tended to adopt non-traditional or mixed approaches. Significant differences were found in apparatus use (p < .01) and perceived challenges in specific thematic units (p < .01). Smaller but still significant differences were also observed in the evaluation of material (technical) conditions (p = .02), with most teachers in both groups rating them as “Sufficient” or “Good” and equipment preferences (p = .05). Teaching experience influences teaching gymnastics in Slovak primary schools. While teachers with ≥ 10 years of teaching experience adhere more to traditional methodology, teachers with ˂ 10 years of teaching experience are more inclined toward innovative and blended practices. Despite pedagogical differences, both groups face systemic limitations in infrastructure and equipment. The findings underscore the need for differentiated professional development and improved material support to enhance gymnastics education at the primary level.
Burnout in sport has implications for health and performance. The phenomenon has not been investigated in artistic gymnastics, although this sport is at risk. This study evaluated risk and protective factors by integrating a model that considered motivational, personality, and social aspects. Cross-sectional data were collected in nearly the entire population of élite female athletes in the area of Rome, Italy (N = 71; Meanage =13.4 years), and VB-SEM analyses showed an ideal model fit (GoF = 0.393; APC = 0.380, p < 0.001; ARS = 0.292, p < 0.01; AFVIF = 1.996). The guiding hypotheses were confirmed: supportive coaching showed positive and negative relations with perfectionistic strivings and concerns, respectively. Coaches’ controlling behaviors only had a positive relation with perfectionistic concerns. Furthermore, perfectionistic strivings and concerns respectively exhibited positive and negative relations with basic psychological needs. In turn, these showed positive relations with enjoyment, and the latter showed a negative relation with burnout. The findings suggest moving forward in understanding the psychological experiences of athletes practicing artistic gymnastics, focusing in particular on the role coaches may have and on athletes’ awareness of the risk of burnout symptoms (i.e., exhaustion, a reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation).
Research in elite sport has been prioritised towards athlete’s preparations for competition, with considerably less attention drawn to the post-competition period. The aim of this study was to explore the phenomenon of the ‘post-competition blues’ and its short to long-term effects on elite athletes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 TeamGym gymnasts (4 females and 2 males) who had competed at a European Championships. Transcripts were analysed using inductive thematic analysis with three overarching themes identified: ‘Performance Expectations’, described whether gymnasts failed to meet or exceeded their (or others) initial expectations. ‘Athletic Identity’ reflected the impact of competing on gymnast’s identity. ‘Support around the post-competition period’, discussed how there was an initial lack of support post-competition but highlights positives that came with time. Findings highlighted that those gymnasts who exceeded performance expectations found the post-competition period more challenging, others felt a loss of identity following the Championships and struggled with the adjustment back to ‘everyday life’, whilst also suggesting that support was scarce during this period, bar the exception of teammates. Further research is required on non-Olympic sports, with a larger sample, and a mix of nationalities to better understand the impact the post-competition phase on those athletes. Practically, developing interventions to prepare (i.e., psychoeducation classes) and support gymnasts during the post-competition phase (i.e., athlete-led decompression activities) are key to minimising the impact of post-competition blues.
Flexibility is a foundational motor skill in rhythmic gymnastics and is crucial for successful performance. While existing flexibility assessments, such as the frontal splits on an elevated surface, have been used in the field for years, psychometric properties have been underexamined. Preliminary reliability of the frontal splits on an elevated surface has been established only recently, while validity remains underexplored. The current study aimed to examine the construct validity (convergent and discriminant validity) and concurrent criterion validity of the frontal split on an elevated surface test in rhythmic gymnasts. Fifty-six rhythmic gymnasts aged between 13.63±2.25 years were included in the study. The flexibility of gymnasts was assessed using three tests: a frontal split on an elevated surface, both with a tape measure and a goniometer; a forward bend on a bench; and a frontal split with hand support in standing. Gymnasts (Participant Classification Framework (PCF) Tier 3-4 - highly trained/national to elite/international) were tested for correlations with related/unrelated constructs, in addition to standards, and for group differences (preferred limb, competition tiers). The preferred limb demonstrated superior frontal split performance (p < 0.05), while Tier 3-4 groups showed no significant differences (p > 0.05), likely reflecting ceiling effects at elite levels. The frontal split on an elevated surface test, measured with a tape measure at maximum foot height, demonstrated good construct validity (both convergent and discriminant) and concurrent criterion validity in rhythmic gymnasts, whereas the goniometer assessment of the same test failed due to unreliability in the hypersplit positions. The frontal split on an elevated surface test with a tape measure provides a practical, International Gymnastics Federation (FIG)-aligned tool.
Bilateral differences in the agonist-antagonist muscle of the lower extremities and inadequate and/or incomplete rehabilitation programs may account for strength asymmetries which in turn may affect exercise performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two different fatigue protocols on bilateral limbs asymmetry. The two fatigue protocols applied on 15 female gymnasts aged 10-13 years. During the 1st laboratory test participants were performed 30 repetitions of maximal intensity using their knee flexors and extensors on an isokinetic dynamometer, while during the 2nd test participants performed 30 one-legged vertical jumps on a Chrono Jump platform. According to the results, a statistically significant decrease (p < .01) in performance in both protocols was found, with the average of the last four repetitions being significantly lower than the average first four in both protocols for right and left lower limbs. Conclusively, the two protocols are considered reliable with fatigue index fluctuating the same level of fatigue in young female gymnasts.
Extremely skilled, predefined movement patterns are embedded in memory and accessed with exceptional confidence, often under incredible levels of pressure, anxiety, and expectation. However, in certain circumstances, some "triggers" occur that trigger anxiety and prevent the performance of those almost automated skills. This phenomenon is called differently in various sports, and in gymnastics, it is most often associated with the terms lost movement syndrome (LMS) or mental blocks, twisties or flikikammo. The results determined that all the respondents were suddenly affected by mental blocks, most often several times during their gymnastics career. The nature and duration of mental blocks varied between gymnasts. What they had in common was that they predominantly experienced mental blocks when performing elements backwards. The most common cause of mental blockage was learning new elements too quickly, and the main manifestation of mental blockage was fear and anxiety, as well as avoiding performing the blocked element during training. The treatment methods used by the respondents were different, and the most effective strategy was temporarily distancing themselves from the blocked element and/or the gym. This study provides qualitative insights into the causes, psychological mechanisms, and contextual factors underlying mental blocks, and emphasizes the importance of educational programs aimed at strengthening the competencies of coaches and gymnasts in their recognition and management.
Balance and pivot elements are essential in rhythmic gymnastics, directly influencing performance outcomes. Core stabilization has been associated with improved postural control and injury prevention, yet evidence regarding its role in pivot execution among rhythmic gymnasts remains limited. This study aimed to compare the effects of a 7-week core stabilization program performed on stable versus unstable surfaces on balance and pivot performance in young rhythmic gymnasts aged 7–12 years. Sixteen female competitive-level rhythmic gymnasts were randomly assigned to a Stable Surface Group (SSG) or an Unstable Surface Group (USG). Both groups completed an identical functional core training protocol, differing only in the type of surface. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included three static balance tasks and two pivot variations, evaluated using stopwatch-based duration and Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique criteria. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA examined within- and between-group differences, with significance set at p < 0.05. Significant improvements were observed in all outcome measures within both groups following the intervention (p < 0.001). Νo significant between-group differences were found, despite descriptive variability in percentage improvements. In conclusion, core stabilization training enhances balance and pivot performance in young rhythmic gymnasts, regardless of surface condition. These findings support the inclusion of core stabilization exercises in regular training routines but suggest that unstable surfaces do not provide additional performance benefits in this population.
Performance in women’s artistic gymnastics is evaluated through difficulty (D) and execution (E) scores across four apparatuses: Vault, Uneven Bars, Balance Beam, and Floor Exercise. Understanding how these scores predict overall success can guide athlete development and Olympic preparation. This study aimed to identify key predictors of all-around performance and project future trends by analyzing official Olympic data. Final scores from the all-around competitions at the Tokyo 2020 (n = 80) and Paris 2024 (n = 58) Olympic Games were used to construct multiple linear regression models. Apparatus-specific D and E scores served as independent variables to predict total scores. Separate models were developed for each Olympic cycle and for the combined dataset. All models demonstrated excellent predictive strength (R² > 0.998). Among the predictors, E scores—particularly on Uneven Bars and Balance Beam—showed the strongest contributions to total scores (β > 0.25, p < .001). The combined model exhibited strong internal consistency and minimal multicollinearity, supporting its robustness and generalizability. Trend-based analysis indicated a continued increase in average total scores between 2020 and 2024, suggesting further gains toward the 2028 Los Angeles Games. These findings underscore the critical role of execution quality, especially on technical apparatuses, and support the strategic use of longitudinal performance modeling in elite gymnastics training. Coaches and sport scientists may benefit from focusing on apparatus-specific E score optimization to enhance Olympic performance outcomes.
People's daily lives have been negatively affected by the unexpected emergence of Covid-19, with young children and teenagers being the most severely impacted. The implementation of stringent measures to control the epidemic has led to significant changes in children's physical characteristics and physical activities. This investigation therefore focused on the food intake and physical activity of children during their enforced home confinement due to the Covid-19 epidemic. The sample consisted of 105 non-competitive gymnasts aged 4 to 18 who completed two separate questionnaires: one covering the period before the Covid-19 pandemic-related home confinement and another covering the confinement itself. The Mediterranean Diet Quality Index in Children and Adolescents was used to assess nutrition, while the Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to measure leisure-time physical activity. The results showed that, while there was variation in the type and amount of physical activity, there was also a significant change in the children's diet due to differences in the quantity of various foods (vegetables, legumes, etc.). In conclusion, the pandemic altered gymnasts’ dietary habits and physical activity levels during Covid-19-induced confinement.
This article critically reflects on the participation of men in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG), a discipline whose expressive and aesthetic nature has been socially and pedagogically associated with femininity. From a gender perspective, it analyses how sport has operated as a device for reproducing stereotypes, limiting access to certain physical practices based on sexual characteristics. Through a theoretical and historical review, the pedagogical origins of RG are examined, tracing the influence of methods developed by Dalcroze, Bode and Medau and how these influenced its recognition as a sport exclusively for women. The literature review conducted in scientific databases reveals an alarming scarcity of research on the opinion of male participants in RG. These studies present discourses that reveal cultural tensions surrounding the incorporation of men, evidencing acceptance and rejection in different competitive contexts. It is concluded that the effective inclusion of men in this discipline requires not only regulatory modifications, but also an educational approach that breaks down prejudices, stereotypes and gender biases that associate practices with a specific gender. It is argued that RG, far from being an exclusively female practice, constitutes an opportunity to diversify bodily experience, overcome hegemonic models of masculinity and move towards a critical and inclusive physical education.
The evidence has shown some discrepancy regarding the relevance or incidence of executive functions in closed-skill sports, specifically artistic gymnastics. More specifically, no studies have examined the relationships between executive functions and the different apparatus in competition, taking into account their distinct characteristics. The present study aimed to analyse the correlations between executive functions-specifically inhibition (IN), working memory (WM), cognitive flexibility (CF), and their general index (EF)-and the sports performance of adult male artistic gymnasts on the six competition apparatus: floor (FX), pommels (PH), rings (SR), vault (VT), parallel bars (PB), high bar (BH), and the all-around (AA). Seven elite adult gymnasts and seven adult controls with no gymnastics experience participated. Sports performance was evaluated using the final competition score for each apparatus, and executive function performance was assessed with the Yellow Red test, which comprises six neuropsychological tests. Significant relationships were found between PH and EF, and between AA and WM. No significant differences were found between gymnasts and the control group in executive function performance. Sports performance in male gymnasts is related to WM, which is consistent with previous studies, but not to executive processes such as IN or CF. The relationship is established with the six apparatus in general, without differentiation. Further studies are needed to explore EF performance related to artistic gymnastics in general and its specificity by apparatus.
The Morisue skill (Double Salto Tucked to Upper Arm Hang) on parallel bars is recognized as a high-difficulty element in men's artistic gymnastics, demanding precise coordination, momentum control, and technical mastery. Despite its complexity and recent reclassification as an E-difficulty element in the 2025-2028 FIG Code of Points, limited biomechanical research has analyzed its execution, particularly within Arab and international contexts. This biomechanical case study aimed to investigate the kinematic and kinetic characteristics of the Morisue skill, based on the performance of an elite German national gymnast preparing for the 2024 World Championships in Cairo. Two-dimensional motion analysis was conducted using SkillSpector software (version 1.3.2) on video recordings captured at 30 frames per second. Key parameters-including displacement, velocity, acceleration, angular momentum, and force estimations-were extracted to characterize performance phases. Temporal analysis revealed that the preparatory swing phase accounted for 47% of the total execution time (1.76 seconds), highlighting its critical role in energy generation. Peak angular velocity during the second salto reached 768 degrees/s, while the maximum center of mass height achieved was 56 cm above the bars. Although the limitations of 2D analysis and standard frame rate restrict the precision of kinetic calculations, the findings offer valuable preliminary insights into performance optimization for high-difficulty elements. Integrating biomechanical feedback based on such analyses can enhance training strategies, particularly regarding release mechanics, dynamic balance, and tucking efficiency. This study provides a scientific foundation for coaches and athletes seeking to refine technique and improve competitive outcomes in elite gymnastics.
Trampoline gymnastics is a discipline that requires high motor coordination, precise spatial orientation, and significant lower limb power. One of the most reliable tools for assessing explosive strength is the countermovement jump (CMJ), which enables the analysis of biomechanical parameters of the jump. The aim of the study was to evaluate CMJ parameters in male and female trampoline gymnasts aged 10-13, considering their age and gender. The study included 86 athletes (50 girls and 36 boys) from 12 sports clubs in Poland. Two test variants were performed: with arm swing (CMJ-A) and without arm swing (CMJ), using a Kistler dynamometer platform. Jump height (H), maximum take-off velocity (Vmax), maximum ground reaction force (Fmax), and maximum power (Pmax) were analysed. The results showed a systematic increase in all parameters with age in both genders. Significant statistical differences between girls and boys were observed mainly in the CMJ test without arm swing-in jump height and take-off velocity among 11-and 13-year-olds, and in maximum power among the 10-year-olds. In the younger age groups, girls sometimes achieved higher Fmax values despite lower jump heights, which may be due to different movement strategies. The results confirm that the CMJ test, especially in the version without arm swing, is a useful tool for monitoring the development of lower limb explosive power and can support the process of sport selection in trampoline gymnastics.
Overuse injuries in the lower back, knees and hip/groin are common among competitive rhythmic gymnasts. The aetiology and mechanisms are multifactorial, and insufficient physical capacity relative to sport specific requirements may be one of several factors causing overuse injuries. The aims of the present study were to investigate strength and flexibility in the lower back, knees and hip/groin in relation to requirements within rhythmic gymnastics (RG), and to identify possible adverse movement patterns that can be targeted through exercises in future injury prevention research. This was a cross-sectional clinical study where all rhythmic gymnasts in a Northern European country’s national team and their recruitment group were invited to participate. The clinical assessment followed a standardized test protocol and consisted of selected tests on strength, flexibility and RG-specific movements. Background variables (anthropometrics, weekly training hours, previous injuries, present health problems and other health measures) were collected in an electronic questionnaire. Twenty of 24 rhythmic gymnasts (83%), aged 12-19 years, participated. Seven selected tests not previously tested for reliability underwent a test-retest of intra-rater reliability in 10 gymnasts. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values ranged from 0.84 to 0.98 and Cohen’s kappa values ranged from 0.74 to 1.0. The clinical tests identified insufficient strength and ability to transform passive range of motion into active range of motion. In addition, adverse movement patterns related to lower back (one-segment hyperextension) and knee (valgus) were observed. Randomized controlled trials are needed to study the effect of incorporating these findings into an injury prevention program within RG.
In artistic gymnastics, competition results are determined by judges, whose task is to evaluate the perceived quality of movement as accurately as possible. A comparative analysis of measurable motion data and judges' scores is intended. For this study, video-recorded stretch jumps with turn motion data were analysed and evaluated by judges. A total of 174 videos from 29 female participants, each performing 6 trials, were assessed by three expert judges (national licence, at least 10 years' experience). We hypothesise that, in the comparative analysis of motion analysis data and judges' scores, various movement aspects have different influences on the evaluation. The results show several significant correlations between the judges' scores (deductions for jump height, position, landing) and the parameters of the motion analysis. The strongest Kendall's tau-b correlation between judges' deductions and motion analysis data was observed for the number of steps (tau b = 0.600, p < .001), and a strong negative correlation for jump height (tau b = -0.547, p < .001). The results of Krippendorff's alpha test show a lack of agreement between the experts for the judges' scores, but there is a significant positive correlation between the experts for the judges' scores. We conclude that deductions have a varying influence on the total score, depending on the number of parameters considered and whether the competition rules clearly define the gradation of deductions.
