In lumber production from logs, inventory management is of critical importance due to the natural heterogeneity of raw materials, supply-demand imbalances, and biological degradation risks such as fungal damage. As a multistage and interconnected process involving procurement, sawing, drying, and storage, sawmill operations require coordinated decisions across all stages to maintain efficiency and service reliability. In particular, drying (whether by kiln or natural) often acts as a structural bottleneck, directly influencing lead times, inventory accumulation, and the ability to meet customer demand on time. To address this complexity, this study developed an integrated multiperiod mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model that links raw log procurement, production planning, natural and technical drying allocation, inventory control, and shipment decisions within a unified framework. The model optimizes material flows and capacity utilization while balancing cost efficiency and service performance. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis evaluated the impact of key parameters, including service levels, penalty costs, storage costs, and energy prices. The results indicate that technical (kiln) drying becomes a dominant strategy under high service requirements and elevated shortage penalties, as it enhances system responsiveness and reduces delivery risk. In contrast, natural drying can become competitive under conditions such as lower storage costs or significantly increased energy prices. Overall, the findings provide strategic guidance for sawmill managers and firms considering process upgrades, suggesting that core capacity investments should prioritize technical drying, while natural drying may serve as a complementary flexibility mechanism under appropriate economic conditions.
Kitchen cabinets are manufactured using many materials components including wood, glass, and steel. In this streamlined LCA. This paper focuses on the carbon impacts for producing kitchen cabinets and the end-of-life (EoL) impacts when the cabinets are removed from service and landfilled, combusted, and reused. One kitchen cabinet across its entire life cycle results in a net positive A1-C4 GWPTOTAL of 23.06 kg CO(2)e when the cabinet is landfilled, 72.39 kg CO(2)e when it is combusted, and 72.11 kg CO(2)e when it is reused. In each EoL scenario, the biogenic carbon content of the cabinet is 56.45 kg CO2. When Module D is included, an additional benefit of 14 kg CO(2)e is added under the combustion EoL scenario and 65 kg CO(2)e is added when the material is reused. When module D is included, the net GWPTOTAL under the combustion and reuse scenarios were 58 kg CO2e and 7 kg CO(2)e, respectively.
The increasing generation of industrial and biomass waste presents both challenges and opportunities for sustainable energy production. This study investigates the development of biomass-based energy pellets from underutilized mixed sawdust combined with non-woody biomass materials, specifically sewage sludge from wastewater treatment and Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in the Moratuwa area of Sri Lanka. The primary objective is to assess the feasibility of producing quality pellets from these waste streams, addressing the problem of waste management and environmental pollution while exploring potential renewable energy options. The pelletization process involved varying the proportions of non-woody biomass materials, ranging from 10% to 50%, mixed with unsorted sawdust. Comprehensive evaluations of the physical, mechanical, energy, and chemical properties of each formulation were conducted following internationally recognized testing standards, including ISO 17225-6. Statistical analyses indicated that increasing proportions of non-woody biomass materials adversely affected pellet quality, with formulations containing 10–30% Water Hyacinth (WH) and 10–20% Sewage Sludge (SS) demonstrating higher net calorific values over 14.5 MJ/kg, bulk densities over 650 kg/m 3 , ash content lower than 10%, mechanical durability over 96% showing compliance with the international industrial pellet standard of ISO 17225-6. Given the proximity of these raw materials in the Moratuwa region of Sri Lanka, which hosts a significant number of woodworking industries, this study suggests the potential for establishing small-scale, community-driven pellet production as a means to valorize waste streams. While full-scale manufacturing may require further validation, this research highlights the possibility of developing a sustainable waste utilization pathway that supports environmental management and explores renewable energy applications. Future research should focus on optimizing processing conditions and scaling up to assess economic viability and long-term sustainability.
In this study, the global trade of wooden furniture between 1993 and 2020 and the role of macroeconomic conditions, as measured by global gross domestic product per capita, are analyzed to explain the observed trade movement. Market shares of imports and exports, trade competitiveness indices, and a time series econometric modeling approach are used. Results show that most of the top 10 wooden furniture importing countries were consistently high-income economies, whereas the top 10 exporters changed from all high-income countries in 1993 to one-half of them being low- and middle-income countries in 2020. Further, based on trade competitiveness indices, the top 10 most competitive countries shifted dramatically in the study period. A positive, one-to-one relationship between the imports of wooden furniture and global gross domestic product per capita was found, suggesting that import demand rises with higher income levels.
Companies in sustainable development policies and the circular economy are receiving growing strategic interest, with sustainable development and trade gaining increasing recognition and significance. Currently, policies in sustainable development and industry competitiveness are of particular interest. Sustainability management is at the core of international forest policies. The bioeconomy strives for competitiveness; it includes ecosystem services and promotes a value chain based on forest ecosystem services. Policies and regulations play a critical role in advancing these efforts, and standards and certifications are essential in the global marketplace. Forest certification within the value chain is a key component of corporate social responsibility, and sustainable development is also closely linked to the bioeconomy policy framework. This qualitative research draws on academic scientific databases and policy literature to explore these interconnected themes.
This study analyzes the demand outlook for mass timber (MT), specifically Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and GlueLaminated Timber (Glulam), in residential and nonresidential buildings across 12 countries, including the United States, seven Western European countries, three Latin American countries, and China. Two adoption scenarios, conservative and optimistic, were modeled using an innovation diffusion model. All scenarios are based on the principle that the past adoption behavior of the housing industry in response to an innovative structural material is a good predictor of future behavior. The findings in this study provide valuable insights into the adoption of MT, aiding policymakers and researchers in informed decision-making. Within the conservative scenario, Western European and US housing markets continue to dominate global MT demand, with the total demand in the 12 countries reaching 8.1 million m3 by 2060. Within the optimistic scenario, significant growth potential is projected in most countries analyzed, with MT demand projected to reach 24.8 million m3 by 2060. Within the optimistic scenario, demand for MT will be driven by higher acceptance and significant housing starts in emerging economies, such as China and Latin America. Mid-to-low-rise and nonresidential buildings are expected to dominate the market share, with CLT outpacing the Glulam demand.
State forestry cost share programs provide nonindustrial private forest landowners with a reimbursed share of qualifying forest management expenses. The financial effects of programs in the US states of Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia were quantified. Loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) plantation financial returns were benchmarked to the year land expectation value (LEV, dollars per hectare) was maximized first with no cost sharing applied at three levels of site index (18.3 m, 21.3 m, and 24.4 m at base 25 yr), planting density (1,122, 1,280, and 1,495 trees per hectare), and real discount rate (4%, 5%, and 6%). Applicable cost share rates were then considered for all rotations. The generalized Faustmann formula permitted further study of obtaining cost share reimbursement for just the first rotation or only in the future. Paying full cost for forest operations was feasible for all states only under these independent conditions: site index 21.3 m and 24.4 m; planting 1,122 TPH and 1,280 TPH; and a 4% discount rate. Planting 1,495 TPH and setting a 5% discount rate became economically feasible in all states when cost share incentives were accessed at any time. Perpetual cost sharing led to consistently positive LEVs when discounting at 6%. This was also true on SI 18.3 m timberland and extended down to SI 15.2 m in Louisiana and South Carolina.
As a viscoelastic and anisotropic material, wood exhibits significant variations in surface adhesion force under different moisture conditions, directly affecting friction during cutting processes. This study systematically investigates the effects of moisture content, tree species (Pine and Ash), and wood sections on the interfacial adhesion force between wood and cutting tools to establish a theoretical basis for understanding friction mechanisms in wood machining. Using a high-precision uniaxial mechanical testing system, the effects of wood moisture content, tree species, and sections on surface adhesion force were examined under different moisture content conditions. In this experiment, pine and ash were selected as examples; the study shows that the adhesion force increases with rising wood moisture content. When the moisture content transitions from an absolutely dry state to an air-dry state, the surface adhesion force increases slowly, primarily due to van der Waals forces, resulting in smaller and gradual changes. As the moisture content rises from the air-dry state to the green wood state, the surface adhesion force increases more significantly. This is mainly attributed to the increasing content of absorbed water due to moisture absorption, which forms liquid bridges through capillary action in the contact area, enhancing adhesion force. However, as the moisture content continues to rise, the thickening water molecular layer on the wood surface stabilizes the capillary force, leading to a more stable adhesion force. Additionally, the microscopic structure of different tree species and wood sections may also influence the surface adhesion force.
This study developed an early warning indicator (EWI) for sawn timber prices in South Korea by applying machine learning (ML) models. Specifically, we compared the predictive performance of artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), and random forest (RF) models while employing Bayesian optimization to fine-tune hyperparameters and improve both accuracy and computational efficiency. Using monthly timber market data, the empirical analysis revealed that ANN consistently achieves the highest predictive accuracy across both in-sample and outof-sample tests. However, when applying crisis thresholds of 1.65 and 1.96, the ANN model tended to yield overcautious signals. In contrast, SVM and RF performed adequately within the training sample but showed reduced robustness and stability in out-of-sample forecasting, particularly under conditions of data scarcity. These findings underscore the practical utility of ANN as a reliable tool for early detection of timber price shocks, thereby offering policymakers a proactive instrument with which to mitigate risks in a volatile market. Beyond empirical contributions, this research enriches the methodological framework for constructing EWIs in the timber sector and demonstrates the potential of data-driven approaches for enhancing market surveillance and risk management in forest policy and economics.
Forests in the Lake States region rely on a viable logging workforce to sustain timber supply chains, enable active forest management, and support rural economies. However, the logging industry faces mounting challenges, including declining markets for certain wood products, rising operating costs, shrinking profit margins, an aging workforce, and persistent labor shortages. These pressures compounded by mill closures and trucking constraints raise concerns about long-term capacity and wood supply security. This study quantifies the economic contributions of the logging industry in Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the combined three-state region, and evaluates potential economic repercussions of workforce contraction using 2023 IMPLAN data. In 2023, logging businesses directly supported 8,724 jobs and $497.5 million in output across the region, with total contributions increasing to 11,088 jobs and $902.6 million when multiplier effects are included. Scenario analyses indicate that a 20% decline in logging businesses would cause significant job and income losses in rural areas, while reduced in-state capacity and greater reliance on imported roundwood would lead to economic leakage and diminished regional value retention within forest products industries. By adjusting Regional Purchase Coefficients (RPCs), this study employs an IMPLAN approach that is well established but underutilized in forestry-sector research to illustrate how shifts in local sourcing and trade dependence influence regional economies, offering insights relevant to other sectors facing similar supply-chain challenges. The findings highlight the need for targeted workforce development, improved transportation infrastructure, and coordinated regional policies to sustain the competitiveness and resilience of the Lake States logging sector.
Wildfire severity is increasing in boreal forests, with significant ecological and economic impacts. The record-breaking 2023 fire season in Canada intensified concerns regarding effects on wood chemical quality, salvage value, and postfire recovery. This study examined the chemical composition of heartwood, sapwood, and bark in trembling aspen, lodgepole pine, and white spruce in northern Alberta 4 months after the wildfire. Discs were sampled from unburned stands and from stands burned at low, moderate, and high severity. Across species, the bark generally contained higher concentrations of nitrogen (N), carbon (C), chlorine (Cl), and ash than heartwood and sapwood, with these concentrations increasing with fire severity. In contrast, sapwood exhibited higher sulfur (S) concentrations. Differences between heartwood and sapwood were small and inconsistent across fire severities. Moisture content (MC) was positively correlated with N, C, and ash in trembling aspen but negatively correlated with hydrogen (H). In white spruce, MC showed a weak effect, with a positive effect on H and a negative effect on N. Tree diameter was more strongly associated with higher C and lower H and S concentrations. Results suggest that although severely burned stands may experience reductions in timber quality, they still present opportunities for bioeconomy, particularly through the elevated chemical concentration in bark. Salvage operations should explore these alternative uses to support postfire recovery efforts.
There is an ongoing need to identify high performance materials for use as core material in three-ply industrial mats. To this end, bamboo scrimber and comparably sized red oak planks were tested in bending herein. As raw materials, the bamboo scrimber was procured from market stock that is currently used commercially as flooring. The red oak was sawn from planking used for three-ply mat construction. Respectively, the design strength and stiffness of the bamboo scrimber planks were 45% and 28% greater than the red oak. Based on T-tests, these differences were statistically significant at the alpha 1/4 0.05 level. These findings suggest that bamboo scrimber planking may be a candidate for use as core material in three-ply matting in cases where oak or other domestic wood species are not available.
The global timber market's reliance on a limited portfolio of Amazonian species creates supply chain volatility and sustainability challenges; however, market diversification is hindered by a lack of technical data on abundant, lesser-known woods. This study addresses this gap by providing a comprehensive technological characterization of 11 underutilized species from the Tapirape-Aquiri National Forest, Brazil. We integrated wood anatomical measurements with assessments of density, dimensional stability, and dynamic hardness to evaluate structure property relationships. Strong, positive correlations were established between key anatomical features (e.g., fiber wall thickness, ray density) and physical-mechanical traits like apparent density and hardness, validating their use as rapid predictors of wood performance. Principal component analysis (PCA) integrated these variables, successfully grouping the species into five distinct technological categories. These groups revealed clear differentiation in density and hardness profiles, defining their suitability for specific applications. Crucially, several groups demonstrate technological equivalence to overexploited commercial timbers. For example, Cenostigma tocantinum (Group 1) has a high density (0.85 g & centerdot;cm-3) and hardness suitable for heavy construction, analogous to Hymenaea parvifolia, whereas Group 5 species are ideal for light carpentry. This provides a practical basis for substituting endangered species with mechanically compatible alternatives. By linking anatomy to performance, this study establishes a robust framework for diversifying the forest products industry, providing foundational data to introduce these species into supply chains, enhance industrial resilience, and support sustainable forest management.
The trend of de-globalization has highlighted the vulnerability of forest products enterprises' value chain resilience, while digital transformation has emerged as a critical pathway to enhance their risk resistance and competitiveness. Based on data from Chinese A-share listed forest products enterprises from 2003 to 2023, this study empirically examines the impact and mechanisms of digital transformation on the resilience of forest products enterprises' value chains. The results indicate that digital transformation significantly strengthens value chain resilience, a conclusion that remains robust after a series of robustness tests. Heterogeneity analysis reveals that this impact varies significantly depending on ownership structures. Mechanism analysis indicates that digital transformation enhances value chain resilience primarily through facilitating vertical industrial chain integration and elevating corporate innovation capabilities. Further extended analysis from a global market perspective confirms that digital transformation also improves the resilience of forest products enterprises within global value chains. The study provides important policy implications for advancing value chain optimization and resilience building in forest products enterprises through digital transformation: implementing tailored strategies based on regional characteristics and enterprise types, strengthening support for supply chain integration and innovation capacity development, and enhancing risk resilience and competitive positioning within global value chains.
Hinoki ( Chamaecyparis obtusa ) is among the most common tree species in Japan and is valued for its superior mechanical properties and durability. Extensive establishment of hinoki plantations has resulted in an excess supply of this timber, prompting a desire to export, particularly to the United States. Although the timber has excellent mechanical properties, concerns have arisen that the heartwood will be less durable as a result of silvicultural practices to enhance growth rates. Research has shown declines in heartwood durability of some second-growth species compared with old growth of the same species, but research is lacking regarding this phenomenon in hinoki. This study assessed heartwood extractives content in relation to the resistance of second-growth hinoki heartwood from four regions in Japan to decay by Rhodonia placenta , Gloeophyllum trabeum , and Trametes versicolor in laboratory soil-block tests. Heartwood from all four regions was highly decay resistant when exposed to the selected test fungi, with levels comparable with western redcedar ( Thuja plicata ). Hinoki from Shikoku was most resistant to G. trabeum (4.73% mass loss), whereas timber from Kyushu was most resistant to R. placenta (6.72% mass loss) and T. versicolor (0.58% mass loss). Heartwood durability correlated poorly with extractives content. These results support the continued classification of hinoki as highly resistant to fungal attack, highlighting its potential for broader adoption beyond Japan.
Wood pellet mills purchase millions of tons of timber in the southeastern United States, yet little is known about their fiber sourcing practices or suppliers. The objectives of this study were to (1) characterize wood pellet feedstock suppliers (i.e., logging businesses); (2) assess the perceived impact of supplying wood pellet feedstock on sustainability, harvesting costs, and overall business performance; (3) document raw material sourcing practices of wood pellet mills; and (4) compare the outlook of wood pellet feedstock suppliers and wood pellet producers. We conducted a survey of wood pellet feedstock suppliers and wood pellet mill procurement personnel. The supplier survey was conducted via e-mail, with questionnaires mailed to nonrespondents. The wood pellet producer survey was conducted by e-mail. Adjusted response rates were 14 percent for suppliers and 83 percent for producers. Suppliers were generally satisfied with their decision to harvest and deliver timber to pellet mills. Business diversification and increased competitiveness were frequently cited benefits of delivering timber to pellet mills. Suppliers and pellet producers considered harvesting practices to be sustainable and consistent with conventional harvesting practices in terms of effects on soil quality, water quality, and ease of forestry best management practices implementation. Most procurement managers (70%) believed that the pellet industry would increase timber purchases in the region. Suppliers and pellet producers perceived that timber supplied to pellet mills was harvested sustainably and that this market strengthened suppliers’ businesses, although harvesting and delivering timber to pellet mills did present unique challenges.
Lignin derived from sugarcane bagasse presents a sustainable and completely formaldehyde-free alternative to conventional wood adhesives. In this study, a water-based epoxy modification strategy was developed to construct a threedimensional cross-linked network, supported by a two-stage orthogonal design to optimize reaction parameters. The resulting adhesive achieved a bonding strength of 2.72 +/- 0.15 MPa-3.9 times higher than the national standard-while the activation energy for thermal decomposition increased by 64.5 percent (162.4 +/- 5.6 kJ/mol). Scanning electron microscopy revealed a dense, compact morphology in heat-dried films, correlating with >90 percent wood failure rates (within the wood substrate itself, rather than at the adhesive-wood interface), whereas freeze-dried samples exhibited a porous network structure with reduced cohesion. X-ray diffraction and thermogravimetric/derivative thermogravimetric analyses confirmed the thermal-mechanical reinforcement effect of epoxy cross-linking, with the optimized adhesive maintaining 78.5 percent mass retention after 72 hours of aging at 3008C. Importantly, the adhesive was synthesized entirely from formaldehyde-free raw materials, and the trace-level formaldehyde emissions of particleboards (0.02 mg/liter) are attributed to the natural background of wood rather than the adhesive itself, fully complying with Enropean Norm Formaldehyde(ENF)standards. This work offers a scalable route to transform agricultural waste into high-performance, formaldehyde-free wood adhesives, delivering both environmental and industrial benefits.
On the basis of an analysis of operating costs and market prices for hardwood logs and lumber, earlier research determined that in an average eastern hardwood sawmill, a small change of 0.1 percent in any of these factors (operating cost, log cost, lumber prices) will lead to a statistically significant (a 1/4 0.05) change in profit. However, operating cost, log cost, or lumber prices typically fluctuate more than 0.1 percent, with changes of several percentage points for all factors not uncommon. The effect of these fluctuations on what constitutes the break-even log is unknown. The break-even log is the combination of a diameter class, length, species, and log grade factors such that when the log is sawn into lumber and residues the total value generated is offset by the total costs (e.g., a zero-dollar profit). In this paper we explored the impact of statistically significant market price changes for operating cost, log cost, and lumber prices on the break-even log. Findings include that, in general, statistically significant market price fluctuations did not lead to immediate changes in characteristics of the break-even log. However, market price (logs, lumber) or operating cost changes of 2.5 percent or more did lead to pronounced differences in what constituted the break-even log for a US hardwood sawmill.
In the Western Southeast (WSE), states such as Arkansas and Louisiana saw a decreasing trend in the number of primary wood processing mills (PWPMs), which fell by 20 percent and 24 percent, respectively, from 2018 to 2023. A combination of market shifts, policy changes, and transportation costs is contributing to the decline in number of mills. Although factors such as infrastructure, labor availability, and resource accessibility are critical for establishing the mills, the impact of these variables tends to vary across different regions. Thus, this study aimed to assess resource availability and several other factors influencing the establishment of PWPMs in the WSE. Data on PWPMs were obtained from the Forisk Database, 2024. Data analysis depicted that the softwood-using primary wood processing mills (SWPMs) were observed to dominate in the WSE, whereas the hardwood-using primary wood processing mills (HWPMs) were relatively few. Poisson regression findings indicated that annual average weekly wage and average annual merchantable removal were significantly positive for PWPM location, whereas average railway proximity to the PWPM was negatively significant. Similarly, average railway proximity was significantly negative to SWPM; in contrast, the population (less than high school) and average annual merchantable net growth were significantly positive. These results are crucial, offering actionable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders to improve resource utilization and strengthen the resilience of forest products sector in the WSE. The study findings can be helpful in furnishing information that encourages sustainable resource use, enhances forest management, and guides targeted infrastructure investments to facilitate mill establishment.
This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach to examine how decoration complexity and age influence users' aesthetic evaluations, purchase intentions, and visual attention toward wooden furniture. A 2 by 2 ([age: older vs. younger adults] by [decoration complexity: complex vs. minimalist]) experimental design was used, integrating subjective ratings, eye-tracking data, and semistructured interviews to explore users' aesthetic cognition. The results indicated that furniture with complex decorations received significantly higher ratings in both aesthetic appreciation and purchase intention, which were associated with longer fixation times and shorter times to first fixation. Furthermore, significant interaction effects between age and decoration complexity were found for both purchase intention and time to first fixation. This study provides meaningful insights for optimizing traditional furniture design and developing age-sensitive market segmentation strategies.
