The high-altitude region of Puno is characterized by a pronounced daily thermal oscillation, which poses a challenge for the production of guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus), a species that is highly sensitive to microclimatic variability. This study analyzed the association between the thermal conditions of the houses and the weight gain of guinea pigs, considering both the mean level of the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) and its intraday stability, measured by the thermal amplitude THI. The research followed a quantitative, non-experimental and longitudinal design, using productive and environmental data from INIA's Illpa Experimental Center. A total of 36 Peru breed guinea pigs housed in three pre-existing and independent facilities were evaluated, with weight records collected every 14 days between November 2023 and February 2024 (216 observations). The climatic variables were monitored by digital sensors that recorded measurements every 15 minutes. The results show that a higher intraday thermal amplitude of the Temperature and Humidity Index (THI) is negatively and statistically significantly associated with weight gain. On the other hand, no statistically significant association was detected between the mean level of the THI and weight gain under the observed conditions. This result does not imply the absence of a possible biological effect of the average THI, but rather that this effect could not be statistically identified within the thermal range and the period analyzed. Likewise, males showed greater weight gains than females, while the estimated coefficient for age was negative, although it did not reach statistical significance in the linear mixed model. Overall, the results suggest that intraday thermal stability may be related to productive performance; however, they do not allow us to conclude that it is more important than the average level of the THI or that it constitutes the only determining factor of weight gain (p<0.001).
The use of frozen-thawed (FT) boar sperm is essential for the swine industry, as it provides global access to superior genetics, thereby increasing efficiency and profitability. However, the cryopreservation process causes cellular damage, reducing post-thaw sperm quality and fertility, and often resulting in smaller litter sizes. This study evaluated the protective effect of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 10 trans, 12 cis-CLA) in freezing extenders on boar sperm quality and in vivo fertility. Semen from three boars was cryopreserved in two groups: a control and a CLA-supplemented group. Post-thaw sperm quality, including membrane stability and acrosomal integrity, was assessed using flow cytometry. Fertility was tested by inseminating 24 sows with either fresh or frozen-thawed semen, recording pregnancy rates and litter sizes. CLA supplementation significantly improved post-thaw sperm membrane integrity and acrosomal preservation, indicating enhanced resilience to osmotic and oxidative stresses. Notably, sows inseminated with CLA-treated semen showed increased total and live-born litter sizes. These findings suggest that CLA acts as a potent cryoprotective additive, likely by stabilising the sperm plasma membrane and mitigating lipid peroxidation. CLA appears to be a promising agent for improving swine artificial insemination programs; however, large-scale studies are still required to confirm its efficacy under commercial conditions.
This study assessed the self-reported animal welfare management practices of small-scale hog raisers in the Philippines and examined their perceived implications for livestock enterprise sustainability. A descriptive quantitative research design was employed. Data were gathered from 42 small-scale hog raisers using a validated researcher-made questionnaire. The study was based on producers’ self-reported questionnaire responses and did not involve direct animal welfare assessment, independent farm inspection, behavioral observation, physiological measurement, or environmental monitoring. Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, weighted mean, standard deviation, and ranking, were used to analyze the data. Results showed that respondents reported a high level of animal welfare management practices, with an overall mean of 3.04. Among the welfare domains, feeding and water provision obtained the highest mean of 3.37, interpreted as very highly practiced, followed by sanitation and waste management, housing and space allowance, disease prevention and health care, handling practices, and ventilation and thermal comfort. Ventilation and thermal comfort obtained the lowest mean of 2.82. The most common welfare-related challenge was the high cost of feeds, reported by 38 respondents or 90.48%, followed by limited access to veterinary services and risk of disease outbreak. The perceived implications of welfare practices for livestock enterprise sustainability obtained an overall mean of 3.30, interpreted as very high. The findings suggest that respondents perceived welfare-oriented hog management as contributing to enterprise continuity, particularly through proper feeding, sanitation, health care, biosecurity, and humane handling. However, because the data were self-reported, the findings should be interpreted as producers’ perceptions and reported practices rather than verified animal welfare conditions. Improvements are needed in thermal comfort management, disease recordkeeping, isolation of sick animals, and transport-related handling.
The pre-farrowing energy status of sows plays a pivotal role in determining farrowing success and in sustaining the health and vitality of sows and their piglets during the immediate post-farrowing period. This study examined the effects of sucrose supplementation on reproductive performance, farrowing kinetics, standing behavior of sows, and piglet vitality. Twelve multiparous sows were randomly assigned to three groups: Control (CON), Water + Sucrose (WSS), and Feed + Sucrose (FSS). In the WSS, 100 g of sucrose was dissolved in 1.9 L of water and provided in the feeder. In the FSS, 100 g of sucrose was directly added on top of the feed. Sucrose was provided three times daily for 6 days, starting 3 days before farrowing and continuing for 3 days after. Results revealed no significant effects on sow reproductive performance, litter growth performance, and farrowing kinetics. However, piglets from sugar-supplemented sows tended to reach their first bout in a shorter period (P = 0.092), suggesting improved early vitality. FSS sows exhibited significantly higher standing frequency on day 1 post-farrowing, enhanced postpartum activity, and potential improvement in recovery. In conclusion, sucrose supplementation from 3 days before to 3 days after farrowing, particularly on top of feed, may contribute to improved postpartum activity. However, its physiological effects require further clarification. Further studies incorporating metabolic indicators and larger sample sizes are recommended to validate these findings.
Size-assortative, nonrandom mate selection and periodic molting for growth, development, and reproduction have been observed in animals, including brachyuran crabs. This study investigated the mate selection of Scylla olivacea from four wild habitats in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, and the molting dynamics of Scylla species in coastal mangroves of Pattani Bay, Thailand. A total of 34 pairs of S. olivacea were collected from four habitats in the Meghna Estuary, where 29 pairs (85%) of males were larger than 5 pairs (15%) of females. A higher abundance of mating pairs was observed in the rainy season (higher temperature and lower salinity) than in the winter season (lower temperature and higher salinity). Significant differences between sexes were found in carapace width (CW), internal carapace width (ICW), carapace length (CL), and body weight (BW). Male size and BW were significantly correlated with female sex. Morphometric traits differed significantly across habitats and seasons. The most frequent CW size class was 8.5-9.0 cm for males (34.3%) and 7.5-8.0 cm for females (26.5%). During molting, S. olivacea and S. paramamosain presented increases by 1.28 +/- 0.48 and 1.35 +/- 0.18 cm (CW), 0.93 +/- 0.33 and 0.83 +/- 0.15 cm (CL), and 0.54 +/- 0.19 and 0.45 +/- 0.17 cm (BH), respectively. No significant differences in molting increment were detected between species or sexes. Premolt size was positively correlated with increment but negatively correlated with percentage increment. These findings offer valuable biological insights for the ecological management and aquaculture practices of Scylla mud crabs.
The ethical use of animals in medical experimentation remains a debated topic, as it requires reconciling scientific advancement with ethical obligations; this systematic literature review explores the complex aspects of animal testing in biomedical studies. We explore the ethical frameworks governing animal testing, the emergence of alternative technologies such as organ-on-a-chip and 3D bioprinting, and the role of artificial intelligence in reducing reliance on animal models. This research consolidates current understanding to pinpoint optimal methods, areas lacking oversight, and novel strategies that align scientific progress with moral obligations. A rigorous methodological approach was adopted to examine scholarly publications, with an emphasis on cross-disciplinary perspectives spanning genetic engineering, clinical trials, and ethnobiology. The results indicate growing agreement on the necessity of the refinement, reduction, and replacement (3Rs) framework but underscore ongoing difficulties in applying these principles across varied research settings. Although progress in in vitro and computational models is promising, their adoption into mainstream research is inconsistent and is frequently hindered by technical and regulatory barriers. Cultural and regional differences in animal welfare standards complicate moral questions, making a unified international strategy essential. This review highlights the necessity of cross-disciplinary cooperation to create ethically grounded and scientifically rigorous alternatives, thereby calling for a transformation in research methodologies toward greater humaneness and sustainability. The conclusions emphasize the urgency of policy reforms and technological innovation to reconcile ethical concerns with the demands of medical progress.
This research was conducted to compare various types of bedding commonly used for sport horses housed in stables in Italy. The main objective of this study was to evaluate how different bedding materials affect the well-being of horses, as these animals spend a significant amount of time in their stalls. A lack of soft material covering the stall floor can lead to serious injuries, respiratory issues, and behavioural problems in horses. During the trial, the four types of bedding were tested with six subjects, all of whom were kept under similar conditions. The materials, which are easily found in Italy and commonly used in stables, were examined over two weeks each: dedusted wood chips, sawmill shavings, straw pellets, and coconut fibres. To evaluate the effectiveness of these materials, we assessed their impact on behavioural aspects. The horses were monitored with infrared cameras, and their actions were categorized into seven different categories . Statistical analysis were performed using ANOVA and post hoc Bonferroni correction to assess differences in the duration of actions performed by horses across different types of bedding. The analysis revealed that straw pellets were the most used bedding material among the six subjects, particularly for the sternal decubitus (SR) and lateral decubitus (LR) positions, both in terms of duration and frequency of use. In conclusion, straw pellets are the most used material, followed by coconut fibres. Further research is needed to evaluate the chemical aspects of each bedding material and analyse how each material reacts chemically during use in stalls.
Individual recognition of animals on modern farms is critical for their management. Identification of pigs is the first step to individualizing the information of each animal for decision-makers. Therefore, the objective of this study was the detection of pigs in the weaning phase employing deep learning techniques. The weaning phase was selected due to issues related to piglet’s adaptation after nursing, presenting social, environmental, physiological and management transitions, challenges, where the piglets tend to cluster together, representing an image processing problem. The YOLOv7 algorithm and VGG Image Annotator were used to detect individual pigs in two pens separated by gender. Frames taken from videos recorded in production conditions of a small farm, in tropical conditions in Colombia, were used for training purposes. Animal postures, clustering and lighting conditions were considered. The Precision, Recall and mAP were used to quantify model performance. A precision of 98.3% was reached with a threshold of 0.9 and a Recall of 98.5% was achieved with a threshold of 0.85. Data augmentation techniques were employed to increase the dataset. The trained algorithm is suitable to detect weaning pig bodies under different conditions, being the first step for implementing precision farming techniques in this pig phase.
Cattle welfare is related to carcass quality and depends on farm management decisions, transport conditions, and slaughter practices. Evaluating combinations of animal welfare indicators can provide a more comprehensive view than univariate analyses. The study aimed to characterize welfare typologies in Manabi by combining Welfare Quality (R) with multivariate analysis to support tailored interventions. Data collection followed the protocol and included binary indicators of infrastructure, hygiene/sanitation, health, and behavior. ACM was performed to explore the latent structure, k-means to identify clusters, and LDA to validate the separation (cross-validation and Mahalanobis distances). MCA accounted for 70.33% of the variability across three dimensions: D1 (floor and udder health), D2 (behavioral/respiratory signs), and D3 (hygiene and deworming). Three typologies were identified in the grouping: G1 (n = 78; udder health), G2 (n = 72; behavior/respiratory), and G3 (n = 30; hygiene). Greater consistency was observed for G1 and G2, while greater internal variability was noted in G3 in the LDA classification matrix. The approach organized animal-based indicators into typologies that describe distinct risk profiles in Manabi's production chain. These profiles support targeted actions at handling points, facilities, and health management, and provide a basis for follow-up using repeatable measurements over time.
The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between behavioral reactivity and fattening performance in bull calves of different genotypes reared under dry-steppe conditions in western Kazakhstan. The research included four groups of young cattle: purebred Kazakh White-Headed animals and crossbreds obtained from Kazakh White-Headed cows inseminated with Simmental (beef type), Limousin, and Auliekol sires. Observations were conducted from birth to 18 months of age, taking into account changes in body weight, average daily gain, feed intake, and behavioral structure during both the winter and summer periods. It was established that crossbred bull calves exceeded purebreds in birth weight by 2.0-5.1 kg (p < 0.001) and by 12.9-40.2 kg at 18 months of age. The Simmental & times; Kazakh White-Headed genotype resulted in the greatest average daily gain (858 g) and the most efficient feed utilization (7.49 feed units per kilogram of weight gain). Behavioral analysis revealed that crossbred bull calves spent significantly less time on locomotor activity than purebred animals did, which corresponded to reduced nonproductive energy expenditure and increased weight gain. A calm behavior type was identified as a factor enhancing fattening efficiency. Simmental & times; Kazakh White-Headed crossbreds proved to be the most economically advantageous for beef cattle production under dry-steppe conditions.
Chickens are the most popular emerging agricultural subsector worldwide and provide humans with animal protein in terms of egg and meat production. Chicken production is facing serious problems associated with changes in the global climate. An understanding of how to mitigate climate change is essential to the successful production of chickens. This comprehensive overview addresses the effects of climate change on the chicken industry, summarizes the adaptation and mitigation strategies used to cope with climate change, describes the role that the chicken industry plays in global climate change, and summarizes future research directions for a sustainable chicken industry in a changing climate. The most significant effects of climate change on chicken production and welfare, such as on the growth performance, quantity and quality of eggs and meat, disease, mortality, immunity, physiological and behavioral changes, water scarcity, and food availability, are fully summarized. The main adaptation measures for coping with climate change in chickens include feed and feeding manipulation, genetic strategies, management practices, thermal manipulation, and farmers’ perceptions and adaptive capacity. The most important mitigation strategies for reducing the carbon footprint resulting from the chicken industry, such as manure management, production and energy efficiency, carbon sequestration, litter management, genetic selection, and climate-smart agriculture, are fully discussed. Furthermore, the contribution of chickens to the carbon footprint is thoroughly discussed. In conclusion, there is a significant need for new methods, technologies and innovations based on genetic markers that are responsible for the environmental sustainability of chicken production under climate change.
This study examined the effects of stocking density on the circadian patterns in locomotor activity (LA), body temperature (T), and cardiac traits in ewe lambs. Eleven animals were monitored for two consecutive 7-d periods under low (2.6 m & sup2; animal(-)& sup1;) and high (1.3 m & sup2; animal(-)& sup1;) densities. LA was recorded by triaxial accelerometers, and four lambs carried subcutaneous biologgers that measured T, heart rate (HR), and HR variability (HRV). Hourly means were analyzed by cosinor modeling to determine the MESOR, amplitude, and acrophase of 24-h rhythms, and the Circadianity Index (CI) was computed as an indicator of robustness. Mean T was lower and HR was higher low high density (T: 38.09 +/- 0.03 degrees C vs. 38.57 +/- 0.01 degrees C, p<0.001; HR: 78.6 +/- 2.3 vs. 73.5 +/- 0.9 bpm, p<0.001), but LA and HRV indices (SDNN and RMSSD) did not differ between densities. MESOR and amplitudes were similar at the two densities. T acrophase was more advanced at high density (1416 +/- 6.9 h) than it was at low density (2207 +/- 1.1 h, p<0.001), but the acrophases in HR and LA were similar. The CI confirmed moderate to high robustness in circadian rhythmicity (T: 0.46 vs. 0.29; HR: 0.50 vs. 0.47; LA: 0.16 vs. 0.17). Cortisol levels in the feces did no differ between low density (86.42 +/- 2.62 ng/ml) and high density (79.62 +/- 4.26 ng/ml). The results indicate that an increase in stocking density influenced the temporal pattern in thermoregulation but did not markedly affect locomotor or cardiac rhythmicity, which suggests that short-term crowding has a limited influence on overall circadian organization in ewe lambs.
The comfort level of dairy cows is indicated by the temperature humidity index (THI), which is calculated for nontropical dairy cows. This study analyze the relationship between respiration rate responses and microclimate (temperature and relative humidity) variation in Friesian Holstein (FH) dairy cows under tropical conditions via artificial neural networks (ANNs) and to compare the comfort level model of dairy cows, which is indicated by the THI and respiration rate. Eleven lactating FHs, three years old, were observed at three farms: BPPIBT Bunikasih, Kansas Ranch Kunak, and Cibugary Farm. Microclimate parameters, including temperature, humidity, and wind speed, were recorded for 24 hours via the NB-IoT D-Ruminansia device, whereas respiration rates were measured manually with a stopwatch. Statistical analysis used an ANN model with two inputs, which were temperature and humidity, and one output, which was the respiration rate, which was trained for 200,000 iterations. The results of this study showed that temperature and humidity had an impact on the respiration rate, which indicated several comfort levels of tropical dairy cows. A respiration rate of <= 50 was used to determine that the cow was comfortable, and >50 was considered stress. At the same temperature and humidity, the respiration rate indicators detected stress earlier than the THI indicators did.
Scrotal hyperthermia is known to impair male reproductive physiology. However its dose- and time-dependent effects on copulatory behaviors have not been fully characterized. This study aimed to systematically quantify the longitudinal effects of chronic scrotal heat stress at moderate (37 degrees C) and severe (40 degrees C) temperatures on the sexual behavior of male mice and correlate these behaviors with testicular mass. Male ICR mice were randomized into control, moderateheat (H37), and severe-heat (H40) groups. Copulatory behaviors, including mounting, intromission, and ejaculation parameters, were assessed weekly for seven weeks. Testicular and body weights were measured at the conclusion of the study. Control mice maintained stable sexual behavior throughout the study. In the H37 group, progressive impairment was observed starting at week three; with increasing mount, intromission, and ejaculation latencies and decreasing, whereas the frequencies of these behaviors correspondingly decreased over the seven-week period. The H40 group exhibited more severe and rapid deterioration. Behavioral latency increased sharply through week five before all copulatory activities,- including mounting, intromission, and ejaculation,-ceased entirely from week six onward. These behavioral deficits were linked to a significant, dose-dependent reduction in testicular mass. Chronic scrotal heat stress impairs male sexual performance in a dose- and time-dependent manner, ranging from gradual functional decline to complete behavioral collapse. This study established a robust murine model with sensitive behavioral endpoints that is useful for investigating the pathophysiology of heat-induced reproductive dysfunction and for evaluating potential therapeutics.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been increasingly utilized for designing facilities for animal production. The aim of this research was to assess the thermal comfort of three different types of commercial fattening pig housing with natural ventilation, which are typ-ical in some tropical countries and are located on different thermal floors (cold, mild, and warm). The modeling conducted for each facility was validated via normalized mean square error (NMSE) values below 0.25 for variables such as velocity (V), relative humidity (RH) and the temperature humidity index (THI). The THI of Farm I, which is located in a warm climate, presented THI values greater than 79 for more than 90% of all the structures, which is why, in a dangerous situation, Farm II presented a THI of 82 in almost all the fa-cilities, which is classified as a facility in an almost emergency state, and Farm III, which is located in a cold climate at some specific points inside of facilities, reached a THI of 73, which represents zones with moderately uncomfortable temperatures. The results of the fluid thermal parameters obtained will improve the design of each of the three facilities located in cold, mild and warm climates to reduce the thermal stress and improve the productivity and profitability of the producers.
Mosquito-borne vector-borne diseases are a global health threat exacerbated by climatic and anthropogenic changes, and effective control relies on targeted source reduction, which demands high-resolution, global data on larval habitat preferences. This study used the GLOBE Observer: Mosquito Habitat Mapper (GO MHM) citizen science platform to analyze data on mosquito breeding sites across four major regions: Africa, Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and North America. Results indicated that, globally, mosquito oviposition site prevalence was in artificial, unlidded, dark-colored outdoor containers with minimal water volume (0-25% fill) for Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex species. Material use for mosquito breeding sites varied across regions: earthenware was predominant in Asia and Africa, whereas plastic was predominant in Latin America. These findings help in effective vector control strategies for community-driven surveillance in global health security.
Understanding how nonhuman primates adjust their behavior in human-dominated environments is essential for effective urban wildlife management. This study examined the daily activity budgets of urban rhesus macaques in the Pashupatinath Temple area of Kathmandu, Nepal, comparing groups exposed to high (HAP) and low anthropogenic pressure (LAP). Behavioral data were collected using focal animal sampling and scan sampling methods. Resting/sitting and allogrooming were the most frequently observed activities of the macaques in both study blocks. However, feeding/foraging differed significantly between the blocks, occurring more frequently in HAP than in LAP. Sex-based differences in behavior were noted between the groups for resting, grooming, movement, and aggression, but not for feeding. Notably, the increased presence of visitors was negatively associated with grooming behavior, particularly among females (Mann-Whitney U = 12464, p < 0.05). An increased number of visitors around the focal subjects in HAP was associated with a decrease in grooming behavior (ρ = -0.2, p < 0.01), which may reflect the combined influence of food provisioning and visitor disturbance (e.g. teasing, threatening behavior) observed at the site. Reduced grooming in areas with high human activity can weaken social bonds, heighten stress, and undermine group cohesion, reducing macaques' social stability and resilience. These findings highlighted nonhuman primate behavior in human-dominated environment, emphasizing the need for effective urban management strategies.
This study investigated the impact of different environmental enrichment strategies on the welfare of growing pigs under industrial housing conditions. Four groups of piglets (n = 22 heads per group) were housed on fully slatted floors and provided with various enrichment objects: cotton rope, grain-filled plastic bottles and wrapping paper balls, whereas the control group had none. Welfare parameters, including lameness; injuries to the body, ears, carpal joints and tails; and tear staining intensity, which is a biomarker of stress, were assessed weekly via modified Pig Welfare Quality Assessment protocols. Statistical analyses were performed via the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and the Friedman rank variance test.The absence of enrichment resulted in a significant increase in the incidence of lameness, carpal joint lesions and body-side injuries (P < 0.05). Compared with the enriched piglets, the control piglets also presented markedly greater rates of ear andtail biting. Among the enrichment types, grain-filled bottles provided the most stable welfare outcomes, maintaining low levels of both physical injuries and tear staining intensity. In contrast, pigs exposed to transient or less interactive enrichment presented higher emotional stress indicators. Overall, the results confirmed that the type and functionality of enriched objects play a decisive role in mitigating harmful oral manipulations, improving locomotor health and reducing chronic stress. Tear staining intensity has proven to be a reliable noninvasive parameter of welfare and is sensitive to changes in environmental conditions. Implementing diversified enrichment strategies alongside regular welfare monitoring can serve as an effective tool for increasing pig welfare and production efficiency in intensive farming systems.
This study aims to analyze the relationship between pet owner attachment and the welfare of pets (cats and dogs) through the lens of local cultural values and Islamic wisdom. Employing a quantitative approach with a survey method, data were collected from 100 Indonesian pet owners who had kept pets for more than six months. The instruments used included the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) to measure emotional attachment and the Five Freedoms of Animal Welfare framework to assess the actual welfare of the pets. All the items were rated on a 1-4 Likert scale. Owing to the nonnormal distribution of the data, as revealed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the Spearman rank correlation was used for statistical analysis. The results revealed a correlation coefficient of-0.015 with a significance value of 0.885, indicating that there was no statistically significant relationship between pet attachment and animal welfare. These findings suggest that emotional closeness does not necessarily lead to better animal welfare outcomes. Owners may anthropomorphize pets, fulfilling their own emotional needs while neglecting the biological and environmental needs of the animals. From a cultural and Islamic ethical perspective, genuine animal welfare involves fulfilling basic rights, such as providing proper nutrition, shelter, freedom from distress, and access to healthcare. The novelty of this study lies in integrating empirical data with cultural and religious values to reinterpret the meaning of animal care. The implications call for more comprehensive public education on responsible pet ownership that balances emotional bonds with practical care. This research is vital for enhancing animal welfare awareness in multicultural and religiously informed societies.
The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of photostimulation in inexperienced male goats to induce sexual and reproductive responses in anestrous females during their first encounter with males. The female goat kids (n = 18) were divided into two groups (n = 9 each) that had no social contact with the males during their rearing. Male goat kids (n = 4) were also separated into two groups (n = 2 each), with no social contact with females during their rearing. The photostimulated males received artificially long days (16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness per day) for 2.5 months, whereas the nonphotostimulated males experienced a natural photoperiod. During the nonbreeding season, males and females had their first sociosexual contact at approximately 15 months of age. One group of females was introduced to a photostimulated male, whereas the other group was introduced to a nonphotostimulated male. The sexual (interval to first oestrus, oestrus behavior) and reproductive (ovulation, first ovulation, corpora lutea, pregnancy rate) responses of females encountering photostimulated or nonphotostimulated males were similar (P > 0.05), except for the second ovulation and the number of corpora lutea. The sexual behavior (nudging, ano-genital sniffing, mounting attempts, mounting with intromission, self-urination, flehmen) of the two groups of males varied during the three days of observation. We conclude that anestrous females exhibit social, sexual, and reproductive responses during their first contact with photostimulated and nonphotostimulated male goats, both of which are sexually inexperienced, during the nonbreeding season.
