This article studies how the integration of the ancient Eastern civilizations of Mesopotamia, the Indus valley, and Elam with the northern steppe populations of the Andronovo culture infl uenced the Oxus civilization. This synthesis spurred innovations in transformational processes and the blending of traditions, most notably in architecture and construction materials. The study confi rms that the architectural traditions and innovations of the Ancient East are refl ected in the sites of the Oxus civilization. Key archaeological sites such as Altyn-tepe, Gonur, Sapalli-tepe, Dzharkutan, Dashli, and Arkaim are analyzed in detail. The article also presents information on the evolution of religious architecture within the Oxus civilization – considered the fi fth great civilization of the Ancient East. It examines sites from Ancient Bactria and Ancient Margiana, as well as Aryan settlements of the steppe herders. By comparing the composition of raw materials and the dimensions used in the construction of temples and altars, the authors off ers comprehensive conclusions about this civilization. Additionally, detailed information is given regarding the specifi c sizes of bricks employed in the tombs of Ancient Bactria and Margiana.
This article discusses materials from the 2007 excavations at the Menzelinsk I campsite. A two-section construction tгеnch was discovered at the settlement. The northeastern part of this structure was built using a wattle-and-daub construction, whereas the southeastern part was constructed without posts and was built likely a log-frame structure. Analysis of the construction tгеnch internal features led the author to conclude that the southeastern part was residential, and the northeastern part was probably used as a livestock stall. Ceramics of four archaeological cultures – from the Eneolithic to the Late Bronze Age – were documented in the pit. However, ceramics found in the fi replace indicate that the building belongs to the late stage of the Maklasheevka culture. Moreover, ceramic material from the early Maklasheevka stage of the Maklasheevka culture and the Ananyino cultural-historical area was identified among the surface fi nds from the eroded part of the campsite. The period of functioning the dwelling was established within the broad timeframe of the late Maklasheevka culture, i.e., the XII–X centuries BC. The settlement as a whole, based on excavation and surface materials, was occupied from the Eneolithic to the Early Iron Age.
This article examines the results of research conducted by the authors on the petroglyphs of the Greater Karatau ridge. 16 objects were selected for this study. The materials character-istic of the fi ne arts of the Early Iron Age are published. The area of the monuments and the number of petroglyphs vary, and the chronological framework of some monuments ranges from the Neolithic period (VII–III millennia BC) to the Late Middle Ages (XIV–XVIII cen-turies). Among the Saka-Scythian ‘trinity’ there are motifs depicted in the ‘animal style’, which form the basis of rock arts. The development of this style is noted to have infl uenced the stylistic and even thematic compositions of the local Bronze Age. This perspective off ers new insights into the issues on origins, chronology, and regional variations of the animal style within Saka-Scythian archaeology. Although the rock engravings of the southern and southwestern regions of Kazakhstan developed as a part of the general Saka-Scythian cul-ture, among them the authors can distinguish depictions evolved from local traditions. This is particularly evident in the depiction of regional fauna, where scenes featuring the Bactrian camel predominate, in contrast to the deer imagery common in eastern regions. These fea-tures indicate the correctness of the scholarly view of a polycentric animal style origin in the Saka-Scythian archeology. However, at the beginning of the I millennium BC, the fi ne art of Altai and Zhetysu had a great infl uence. The article also clearly traces the chronologi-cal limits of the Saka-Scythian petroglyphs, provides examples of applied art, and suggests alternative interpretations of some types of weapons. Among them, the authors can mention the iconographic elements such as felines which are drawn in a circle, depictions of vultures and other zoomorphic fi gures. Study of the Greater Karatau rock arts allow the authors con-sider the Ulken Karatau ridge, as a region that made a certain contribution to the formation of Saka-Scythian (Scythian-Saka) art.
The Gobustan archaeological assemblage is one of the most important resources for studying the ancient history of Azerbaijan and the broader Caucasus. This collection of sites – comprising campsites, settlements and burials from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Ages, along with thousands of rock engravings – has consistently drawn the interest of archaeologists. Located in eastern Azerbaijan on the shore of the Caspian Sea, the Gobustan sites have been excavated for decades. In Gobustan monuments, archaeologists have discovered more than 6.000 petroglyphs during the excavations, which were carried out in rock shelters, barrows and other monuments, starting from the 40s of the last century. The excavations at campsites such as “Ovchularzagasi”, “Anazaga”, “Qayaarasi”, “Qayaarasi-2”, “Keniza”, “Firuz”, “Firuz-2”, “Okuzler-2” and others have shown that the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods are continuously connected in this sites. This connection is evident both in the stratigraphic sequence and in the succession of technical-typological characteristics of stone tools. Single and multiple burials from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods were discovered during excavations in “Kenize” and “Firuz” sites. Unique rock carvings of Gobustan stand out from the others across Eurasia due to their technique, style, and themes. The Mesolithic and Neolithic campsites of Gobustan, together with the burials, stone tool assemblages, and petroglyphs discovered there, provide clear evidence for the existence of a distinct Gobustan archaeological culture, forming a unifi ed complex in the region.
This article presents the results of a comprehensive anthropological and bioarchaeologi-cal analysis of a series of individuals found in three burial grounds of the Scythian period in the forest-steppe Don region. The study included the remains of 101 individuals from Semi-luki, Verkhneye Kazachye hillforts and Ksizovo-19 settlement. The research objective was to reconstruct the living conditions of Middle Don culture settlement inhabitants in Scythian period. For achievment this purpose the data of palaeopathology, the results of δ13C δ15N stable isotope analysis and palaeodemographic studies were used. As a result, it was found out that the representatives of studied sample are characterized by a lower standard of living compared to the population buried in barrows. This is evidenced by the high infant mortal-ity, low life expectancy (22.5 years), more meager diet, which is characterized mainly by the predominance of millet-based food, with a lower proportion of meat and dairy component than in barrows. It was possible to identify certain gender diff erences in the living condi-tions of this population. In particular, women had a more meager diet, while men had dento-mandibular pathologies in the form of supragingival calculus and paradontosis, which were practically absent in women, the peak mortality rate of men and women coincided, occurring at the age of 25‒29 years, but the number of men who died at that age was twice as high. Main cause of high child mortality could be systemic infections.
The article summarizes the results of studying the petroglyphs of a newly documented rock art site at Zholbaryskamal, located in the Kishi (Small) Karatau ridge. The area, river, gorge are named in honor of Zholbarys Khan – the second khan of the Senior Zhuz (tribal union) of the Kazakhs. It is likely that the personal tamga (the sign) of Zholbarys Khan was also identifi ed within the general cluster of petroglyphs. There are more than 400 rock engravings were documented here in total. Statistical analysis of all the depictions on the landscape was conducted. The main number of them refers to the Middle Bronze, but images of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age are widely represented. A distinct layer of imagery belongs to the broader artistic culture of the southern part of the Eurasian steppe zone during the Middle Bronze Age, including adorants, chariot, other canonical images of the "Andronovo pictorial tradition". Unique scenes of hunting and sacrifi ce, multi-fi gure scenes featuring animals such as camels, bulls, horses of diff erent periods were also documented. "Bi-triangular" styled depictions of the Early Bronze have also been recorded. Unique fi nd for Karatau is an image of a small banner of the Turkic period. The paper also provides a history of petroglyph research in the region, this is the fi fth known Rock Art site of the Kishi Karatau.
This article publishes ceramic fi ndings of the Lyalovo culture from the Ksizovo 6 settlement and burial ground in the Upper Don region. The settlement was investigated in 2004-2005. Over two years of research, the excavation area totaled 253 sq. m. Ceramic fi nds and burials dated from the Early Neolithic (6th millennium BC) to the Early Slavic period (4th–5th centuries AD) were discovered within cultural layer. Among this array of fi nds, there are groups of ceramics of the early and late stages of the Lyalovo culture, which is represented by comb-pit, punctured-pit and pit-comb ceramics dating back to the 5th millennium BC. A total, 83 vessels were analyzed, a technical and technological analysis was fulfi lled as well as the fi rst radiocarbon dating for this ceramic complex. It is concluded that at a late stage of its existence, in the second half of the 5th millennium BC, hybridization of the manufacturing technologies of the late Lyalovo ceramics and the late ceramics of the Middle Don culture took place. As a result, a hybrid pottery with punctured-pit ornaments was formed, which is dominated by the Lyalovo features. That is why it is also correct to call it the Lyalovo for the settlement of Ksizovo 6, especially since its production technology is similar.
The paper deals with the results of the studies at the Sokolnaya 12 site. It provides data concerning the stratigraphic and planigraphic distribution of various cultural complexes across the studied area. Typological and morphological characteristics of the early (vessels decorated with punctured and undecorated ware) and middle (combed-and-dotted type) Neolithic pottery, as well as data from technical and technological analysis are given. Based on radiocarbon dating, the period of use for the fi rst pottery group is determined to be the middle to the second half of the 6th millennium BC, and for the second one, the second half of the 5th millennium BC. Palynological analysis made it possible to establish at this time a gradual change from mixed conifer broadleaved forests with a large proportion of linden to pine forests with an insignifi cant admixture of birch, spruce and broad-leaved species. A representative collection of stone artifacts, comprising over 6,000 units, cannot be clearly divided into cultural and chronological groups. The connection of some categories and types of tools with ceramic groups requires additional study. The high proportion of plates in the collection (about 19%) also suggests the presence of a Mesolithic admixture in the materials of the site.
This paper publishes the results of research conducted at the Chayka archaeological complex by the Akmola archaeological expedition of the “Center for the Protection and Use of Historical and Cultural Heritage” of the Department of Culture of Akmola region in 2024. During the reconnaissance survey of the area surrounding the Chayka I Bronze Age burial ground, three previously unknown sites from various periods were identifi ed. Two burial structures of the Alakul culture (2nd half of the XVIII–XVII centuries BC) were also investigated. The research objectives of this work are to introduce the obtained material into scientifi c discourse. The main focus will be on analyzing the burial rite and grave goods, as well as determining the place of the materials from the Chayka I burial ground within the system of Alakul antiquities of Northern Kazakhstan. Based on a comparative analysis of the Alakul burial rite in Northern Kazakhstan, the studied structures of the Chaika I burial ground are dated to a wide chronological interval of the second half of the XVIII–XVII centuries BC. The authors agree with the conclusions of A.M. Kislenko, according to which this burial ground was abandoned by the Alakul population moving in the southern and eastern directions.
This paper deals with the results of a technological study of net-impressed pottery samples from the Voznesenskoye I settlement. Excavations at the site were conducted under the supervision of A.V. Novikov in 2020 and 2022. Data of technological analysis revealed close similarities in ceramic production techniques between the Late Bronze Age and the initial stage of the Early Iron Age concerning the preparatory phase of pottery making. The сeramic molding masses were primarily based on sandy clays with artifi cial tempers including grit and organic matter.The grit was produced by crushing granitic-gneiss rock, mostly to a particle size of 1–2 mm and was added into the molding compound in a concentration ranging from 1:4 to 1:6/1:7 (in most cases 1:5). The organic solution was represented by an extract from the manure of ruminant animals. By comparing the pottery-making traditions of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages at the Voznesenskoye I settlement, a conclusion can be put forward about their continuity and stability. At the same time, despite the absence of fundamental changes in manufacturing technology, certain innovations, resulting from cultural contacts, are also perceptible in the ceramic assemblage of the beginning of the I millennium BC.
The article discusses fi ndings of bronze rapier type swords from Southeast region of Azerbaijan. The fi rst artifacts of the same weapons were found by chance in 1941 at Uzuntepe archaeological site. At that time the number of fi nds amounted to 15 items. Over time another 10 swords of this type were discovered by chance during earthworks, and then transferred for preservation to the Museum of regional studies of Jalilabad. These swords are dated back to the Late Bronze – Early Iron Ages and, probably, originate from destroyed burials. The article provides the sizes of items and their possible analogies in the synchronous era. To the present, 25 artifacts are known from the studied area. The length of swords is 40–85 cm, and the (maximum) width is 5–6 cm. The items refer to combat weapon. Analogies to the fi nds are encountered in Lerik, Yardymly, Masally, Lenkoran and Astara districts of Azerbaijan Republic and in Gilan province of Iran. The distribution area of this type of swords of the Late Bronze – Early Iron Ages covered the region of Talysh Mountains, coastal strip (southwestern) of the Caspian Sea (Gilan) and Mughan plain. The prototypes of swords, probably, came to the Southeast of Azerbaijan from western regions of our republic at the end of the Middle Bronze Age and received their further development here. Among the materials studied, there are specimens with a feature of protrusion of a mid-rib – a characteristic of swords of the Middle Bronze Age, although this feature is not strongly expressed. The period of use of this type of weapon should be outlined in the chronological limits of the XV/XIV–VIII/VII centuries BC.
The article presents the results of a morphological and spatial analysis of the stone artifact caches discovered in Eastern Fennoscandia. During the study of this type of archaeological source, which provides information about exchange and religious practices of ancient people, the diff erences of the sets were studied and the contexts of their discovery were compared. The collected data made it possible to determine the age of most of the considered clusters of fi nds. A classifi cation algorithm was applied to the caches, aimed at identifying features that could explain the reasons for the formation and, sometimes, the concealment of compact concentrations of stone artifacts by ancient people. Four groups of intentionally grouped artifacts were identifi ed, diff ering in composition and purpose: caches found in the corners and under the walls of dwellings – construction off erings; caches are warehouses of chopping tools and their blanks from local stone rocks left by ancient people both at settlements and occasionally outside them; caches associated with the exchange of stone raw materials, consisting mainly of fl int semi-fi nished products or cores; hoards formed as a result of as-yet-unclear rituals, including diff erent categories of fi nished tools, most often projectile points.
The paper deals with the use-wear (traceologica) study of bifacial side-scrapers from the Middle Paleolithic deposits of Mezmaiskaya сave whose industry is attributed to the Eastern Micoquian. The materials of the Middle Paleolithic sites of this type are represented, among other things, by various types of bifacial side-scrapers, variants of which are found quite widely from Central Europe to the North Caucasus, Eastern Europe and Altai. The results of the study of this tool group suggest that the cultural tradition likely was not the production of specifi c forms of bifacial side-scrapers, but there was a tradition of manufacturing, fi xing into the handle, and refi ning of these tools. The variability observed in bifacial scrapers was also signifi cantly infl uenced by their mode of hafting. The traceological study of bifacial scraper-knives from the Middle Paleolithic layers of Mezmaiskaya cave allowed the authors to identify traces of hafting on nearly half of the tools. The predominant use involved securing them in a wooden handle, often with a leather wrapping for better fi xation in the hand. Also, half of the tools, for which the use of a wooden haft is identifi ed, have residues of an adhesive (resin or bitumen). Traces of hafting are usually defi ned on tools bases that have thinning retouch. Some of the tools have traces of hafting on the butt (the backed edge).
During the preparation for publication of materials from the Kamen-2 barrow fi eld, dated to the IV–III centuries BC, it was established that its burials contain the largest series of fragmented wooden vessels ever found in the Upper Ob region – a collection that had not been published previously. Museum investigations enabled the identifi cation of the surviving fi nds and their preparation for scientifi c introduction. Specifi c technological features in the manufacture of wooden tablewares were identifi ed, in particular the authors fi xed their oval and octagonal forms with side boards. Analysis of the raw material selection for wooden tableware by the Scythian-period population of the Upper Ob basin indicates that this selection followed North and Central Asian woodworking traditions. It was found out that most items were originally dishes used to hold meat off erings accompanying the deceased in the burial. The context of fi nding wooden wares in burials is traditional – they were placed to the left of dead person’s skull. Analysis of the age and sex of individuals in the burials where wooden vessels were found showed that more often they were found in male burials. In burial space wooden ware mainly functioned as container for contents appropriate to the funerary context.
The article presents materials on twenty-one previously unpublished and newly discovered tamgas in the Eastern Zhetysu between 2020 and 2024. A total of forty-eight signs and tamgas were recorded during the study. These are distributed across six local groups and two isolated locations at the periphery of the range. The first group, in the Karakungey Mountains, comprises fi ve tamgas; the second, in the Tausamaly natural boundary, four tamgas; the third, in the Aksu River gorge, fi ve tamgas; the fourth, on the Suuk plateau, twenty-seven signs; the fifth, on the northern slope of the Kayrakkol Mountains, four tamgas, and the sixth, on the western slope of the Sarytau Mountains, four tamgas. Single signs were recorded in the central gorge on the long northern slope of the Konyrtau Mountains and in the Baskan River gorge. The important set of tamgas fi nds analogies in the signs used by nomads of the late Scythian and Hunno-Sarmatian periods, who either settled in or migrated through regions from Mongolia to the Northern Black Sea area. Main groups with tamgas were probably associated with nearby burial grounds dated from the Late Saka period to the Huns-Sarmatian period, which have clearly expressed Eastern features in the architecture of the barrows and the burial rite – Tausamaly, Suuk 3, Balasaz, Tastybuyen. Based on the quantity and types of tamgas and the composition of the burial grounds, by the end of the I millennium BC, a large tribal group had penetrated the Zhetysu region, replacing the local late Saka population and subsequently participating in nomadic migrations at the turn of the eras. The new data obtained during this study makes it possible expand our understanding of the cultural and ethnic processes that took place in Eastern Zhetysu during the second half – last centuries of the I millennium BC.
The article presents the results of the latest interdisciplinary studies of the Zamil-Koba 1, 2 and 3 campsites in the Southwestern Crimea. The geomorphological studies explained the formation process of the gorge system, leading to the conclusion that the grottoes of the Zamil gorge reached large size under the infl uence of a linear slope runoff system from the upland adjacent to the gorge. Archaeological studies of the grottoes allowed to establish their chronology, the specifi cs use of sites in the Mesolithic, the features of material culture and paleogeography of the surroundings of the Zamil gorge in the early Holocene. It has been established that the grottoes of the Zamil gorge were occupied by humans already at the end of the Pleistocene. The oldest is the lower cultural layer of the Zamil-Koba 1, which was formed in the fi rst half of the Allerød interstadial. At that time the campsite was used during the cold season. Then the campsite was inhabited in the Late Mesolithic (in the Preboreal period), it was attributed to the Murzak-Koba culture. The absence of hearths and campfi res in this cultural layer may indicate the use of the grotto in the warmer months. The less deep Zamil-Koba 2 grotto served as a short-term shelter for the Mesolithic hunters at least twice in the Final Mesolithic in the Early Atlantic period, and the smallest Zamil-Koba 3 grotto was used in a similar way a little later, during the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic.
Archaeological investigations, encompassing analyses of craft production including ceramics alongside written sources, are paramount for reconstructing the socio-economic and ethnic history of a region. The study of ceramic production processes provides valuable insights into the evolution of cultural practices over time. Ceramic artifacts, including their composition and decorative features, serve as crucial archaeological evidence reflecting ethnic interactions, migration patterns, and trade routes in specific contexts. This study aims to reassess the significance of ceramics as primary artifacts for understanding ethno-cultural transformations and adaptive processes in new territories. Special attention is focused on the culture of molded painted ceramics from the medieval period, which has long remained on the periphery of scientific interest. The origin of this type of ceramics is linked to nomadic pastoralists whose migrations have had a significant impact on the cultural landscape. The mobile lifestyle and technological skills of nomads, including metalworking and other craft practices, could have played a pivotal role in the formation of urban centers specializing in metalworking and other industrial sectors. Nomadic societies facilitated not only the implementation of new production technologies and methods, but also provided the supply of raw materials and labor for the development of urban craft centers.
The purpose of this paper is to introduce a number of projects of the Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction, Center for Physical Anthropology, IEA RAS. Next year, the Laboratory will celebrate its 75th anniversary. Over the years, since the time of M.M. Gerasimov, the collection of reconstruction portraits made from the skulls of representatives of the ancient population has increased significantly, and approaches to more accurate transmission of individual features of appearance during craniofacial reconstruction are constantly being improved. The paper presents a number of reconstructions illustrating the diversity of the medieval population of the Volga-Kama region. These are representatives of the Mazunino culture from the Pokrovsky burial ground, the ancestors of modern Udmurts from Tolensky burial ground of the Polom archaeological culture and the Shaivyl Chepetsky culture. The most important component of the work of the Laboratory is the improvement of the method of anthropological appearence reconstruction. As part of these activities, a study was conducted to clarify the positions of the inner and outer corners of the eye on such informative material as pairs of skull – lifetime photos of the same individual. These developments to the reconstruction of the eye area are new and are being published for the first time. Thus, to determine the center of the pupil, it is necessary to change the position 1.7 mm laterally from the center of the line connecting the points of the endoorbital and exoorbital. The inner corner of the eye is 8 mm away from the endoorbital point, and the outer corner is 6 mm away from the exoorbital. It is important to continue studies on a larger number of materials, as well as for women and representatives of other anthropological types.
For the first time, the content variation of elements were detected by instrumental neutron activation analysis, as well as the formation of nuclear fission elements in archaeological bone finds belonging to various periods of evolution on Earth. Important scientific and practical results were obtained, consisting in the fact that the uranium content in the bones of the archanthrope, dinosaur and southern mammoths was 150-22000 times higher than the uranium content in the standard bone. The paper shows that the uranium content has an increasing tendency depending on the duration of the skeleton in the soil. At the same time, the thorium content in the examined bones differs slightly. The formation phenomenon of the nuclear fission elements in bones is explained by fission process of uranium-235 under the action of background neutrons in natural conditions.
The Moksha Region was a significant region for the Golden Horde. There was a city that arose in the 13th century – Mohshi (Naruchal), which was the main “beled” for the entire area. In the last third of the 14th century, the administration of the region moved lower along the Moksha to a site that referred to in archaeology as Ityakovo settlement. It is possible that it was called Temnikov since the last third of the 14th century. The presence of archaeological sites shows that the region was inhabited primarily by the Mordovians, who retained the primacy as the most numerous ethnic group of the Moksha Region during the Golden Horde period. A phenomenon characteristic of the Middle Ages is evident, where the managerial and economic elite is formed from one ethnic group, and the dependent population from another. Since the 14th century, the advancement of the Russians in the Moksha Region was noted.
