Chalcone synthase (CHS) is a pivotal enzyme in flavonoid biosynthesis involved in plant development, defense, and secondary metabolism. Xanthoceras sorbifolium (yellowhorn) is a medicinal and ornamental species with high resistance to environmental stresses, but its CHS gene family remains uncharacterized. We performed a pangenome-wide identification of CHS genes across five yellowhorn genomes (Xzs4, Xwf8, Xjg, Xg11, and Xzg2). Across the five yellowhorn genomes, 27 CHS genes were identified and classified into four core pangenes, present in all five genomes, and two dispensable genes, present only in a subset of genomes. Phylogenetic analysis grouped these genes into three major clades, and chromosomal mapping and duplication analyses identified four tandemly duplicated gene pairs under purifying selection. The analyses of conserved structural features, including protein motifs and exon-intron organization, together with promoter cis-regulatory elements and gene ontology annotation, further indicated the potential involvement of CHS genes in flavonoid biosynthesis and stress-responsive mechanisms. Gene expression profiling identified significant upregulation of Xg11_CHS1 and Xg11_CHS3 under cold and drought stress, with tissue-specific expression patterns. These findings provide valuable insights into the evolution, functional diversification, and stress-responsive roles of the CHS gene family, identifying candidate genes for future studies targeting stress tolerance and flavonoid biosynthesis in yellowhorn.
Nickel (Ni) contamination of agricultural soils is an important threat to crop productivity and food safety because of its persistence and phytotoxicity. The present study assessed the possibility of citric acid (CA) seed priming as a strategy to mitigate Ni-induced stress in Abelmoschus esculentus L. A pot trial was conducted under a completely randomized design with four treatments (hydropriming as control, Ni stress, CA priming, and stress + priming). The CA priming significantly improved seed vigor (201.67%), photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll a 4.55 mg g-1, total chlorophyll 10.48 mg g-1), and relative water content (59.05%), which resulted in better membrane stability (67.48%) and improved plant growth under Ni stress. These improvements were accompanied by a strong activation of antioxidant defense systems as measured by enhanced activities of peroxidase (40.44 U g-1 FW), catalase (54.38 U g-1 FW), and ascorbate peroxidase (60.37 U mg-1 protein), in addition to higher values of protein content (1.68 mg g-1). Furthermore, gas chromatography mass spectrometry-based metabolomic profiles of leaf tissues showed that CA priming induced an increased accumulation of organic acids, phenolics, fatty acids, sugars, and amino acid derivatives related to metal chelation, osmo-protection, and oxidative stress mitigation. The coordinated regulation of physiological, biochemical, and metabolic responses underscores the efficacy of CA priming in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and possibly reduced Ni toxicity.
Suaeda salsa is a widely distributed annual euhalophyte that thrives under both saline and saline-alkaline conditions, making it a valuable model for understanding plant salt-tolerance mechanisms and a promising resource for saline agriculture. However, the integrated understanding of how its physiological, biochemical, molecular, and microbial responses collectively support salt tolerance remains fragmented. Moreover, how these traits contribute to soil restoration and agricultural use remains insufficiently understood. S. salsa achieves optimal growth at 200 mM NaCl and tolerates salinity up to 400 mM NaCl through coordinated salt-tolerance responses. These responses comprise Na+ uptake and vacuolar sequestration, maintenance of K+/Na+ homeostasis, osmotic adjustment via compatible solutes, and strong antioxidant defenses. Moderate salinity enhances shoot biomass, chlorophyll content, electron transport rates, and carbon-assimilation enzyme activity, while high salinity triggers betacyanin accumulation that protects photosystems I and II integrity. Seed dimorphism and salinity-responsive reproductive development further support establishment in fluctuating saline habitats. Rhizosphere and endophytic microorganisms further enhance nutrient acquisition and salt tolerance, while field cultivation of S. salsa supports saline-soil reclamation and phytoremediation. Its genetic resources also highlight its potential for salt-tolerance breeding, establishing S. salsa as both a model halophyte and a practical resource for saline agriculture.
Environmental contamination by pesticides and salts is a growing agricultural issue, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Difenoconazole (DIF), a commonly used fungicide, and sodium chloride (NaCl), a widespread salinity stressor, often coexist in soil and water, yet their combined effects on non-target crops such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) are not well understood. This study assessed the individual and combined impacts of DIF (0.5 L ha-1) and NaCl (150 mM) on tomato seedlings by evaluating morpho-physiological, oxidative, and biochemical responses. Results showed significant reductions in shoot and root lengths under DIF (22.7%, 15.8%), NaCl (31.1%, 35.6%), and combined exposure (19.4%, 29.9%) compared to the control. Chlorophyll a and b levels decreased, with chlorophyll b reduced by 84% under co-exposure, indicating synergistic pigment degradation. Carotenoids increased (up to 96.7% under NaCl), suggesting a compensatory antioxidant mechanism. Oxidative stress markers malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) increased under all treatments but showed antagonistic trends under combined exposure. Detoxification enzymes peroxidase (POD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) were highly activated under co-exposure, while antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) showed partial recovery. Proline accumulation peaked under DIF (389%) but decreased under combined stress (61%), indicating an antagonistic interaction. Flavonoid content (FLV) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity increased significantly under co-exposure, reflecting stimulated secondary metabolism. Overall, DIF and NaCl co-exposure triggered complex phytotoxic responses, primarily synergistic, impairing plant growth and metabolism. These findings underscore the need for integrated risk assessments of agrochemical and salinity co-stress, crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental protection in vulnerable regions.
Optimising root system architecture (RSA) is essential for improving maize resilience to drought, salinity, and nutrient stress, yet its regulatory landscape remains fragmented. Here, we integrated gene mining, cross-species orthology, in silico expression profiling, and gene regulatory network (GRN) analysis to identify RSA regulators under abiotic stress. Curated literature and comparative genomics identified 127 non-redundant maize RSA-associated genes (v5; 69 transcription factor (TF)-coding, 58 non-TF) enriched for lateral root formation, adventitious root development, root system development, hormone-mediated signalling, and cytokinin metabolism, indicating representation of RSA-shaping developmental processes. Spatial and stress-specific transcriptomes revealed expression of root-system-modulating genes, that is Zm00001eb091920 (AASR2), Zm00001eb429540 (CCDP), Zm00001eb405590 (NACTF25), Zm00001eb256650 (CCAAT-HAP2), and Zm00001eb121500 (CKO1), preferentially in the root cortex and elongation zone. The GRN comprised 616 unique nodes and 3295 regulatory edges, identifying KN1 (Zm00001eb055920), EREB147 (Zm00001eb150840), and D8 (Zm00001eb054480) as major transcriptional hubs and miR167d-3p as the most connected miRNA, supporting hormone- and auxin-linked RSA plasticity. qRT-PCR analysis confirmed co-expression of Zm00001eb234120 (WRKY48), Zm00001eb212120 (NACTF6), and Zm00001eb386990 (TIPD1) with regulators Zm00001eb051660 (EREB142), D8, and KN1 in drought- and salinity-stressed CML579. Expression modules further suggest that Zm00001eb403030 (RTCL1) and auxin-associated regulators modulate post-embryonic root initiation and branching. The current investigation outlines a stress-responsive maize RSA network and identifies targets for functional validation, genome editing, and breeding climate-resilient cultivars.
Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) is a major group of plant-parasitic nematode that severely reduce crop productivity by hijacking host root resources. Environmental and toxicological risks associated with chemical nematicides drive the need of eco-friendly management strategies. Therefore, a greenhouse experiment was conducted to assess the single/joint suppressive effects of Arthrobotrys oligospora and salicylic acid (SA) in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants infected with Meloidogyne incognita. Compared to single treatment, combined (A. oligospora + SA) application exhibited pronounced improvement in growth, biochemical parameters, and yield attributes in nematode-infected tomatoes. The combined treatment significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced β-1,3-glucanase, phenylamine ammonia lyase (PAL), peroxidase (POD), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, while significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in proline and malondialdehyde (MDA) content when compared with nematode-infected plants. The combined treatment of A. oligospora and SA significantly decreased nematode infection parameters, disease index, and reproduction factor in nematode-infected tomato. Histological analysis showed that A. oligospora reduced nematode penetration and feeding site development, whereas roots infected solely with M. incognita displayed pronounced vascular bundle damage. These findings demonstrate that the combined application of A. oligospora and SA effectively suppressed M. incognita infection and enhanced tomato defence responses under greenhouse conditions.
Remorins (REMs) are plant-specific proteins known for their diverse biological functions. However, their roles in plant growth, development, and responses to abiotic stress remain largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the function of BrREM1.4 (PQ810929), a protein isolated from the turnip (Brassica rapa) cv. Tsuda in growth, development, and resistance to saline-alkaline stress. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that BrREM1.4 showed tissue-specific expression, with the highest levels detected in the petals. The transcription levels of BrREM1.4 in turnip seedlings (1-7 days old) were significantly higher under natural light conditions compared with dark conditions. Furthermore, the expression of BrREM1.4 was upregulated in response to extreme temperatures, saline-alkaline stress, and drought stress. Heterologous overexpression of BrREM1.4 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) resulted in increased plant height, leaf number, root length, branching, and 100-grain weight although it significantly reduced the seed setting rate. Compared with wild-type tobacco, plants overexpressing BrREM1.4 exhibited enhanced tolerance to salt (NaCl) and alkali (NaHCO3) stresses. These findings suggest that BrREM1.4 plays a crucial role in plant growth and development, as well as in the adaptation to various abiotic stresses.
Focusing on the highly heterogeneous habitat of the Jingpo Lake lava plateau, this study quantified 24 above- and below-ground functional traits across 12 dominant species. Transcending the conventional single-organ perspective, we investigated whether environmental stress drives the divergence of adaptive strategies by amplifying trait variation among distinct life forms. Woody plants exhibited substantially higher phenotypic plasticity than herbaceous species, with the average coefficient of variation for absorptive roots reaching 32.74% - approximately twice that of herbs. Reflecting a 'structural reinforcement' strategy, the main vein thickness (MV) and root stele diameter (RSD) of woody plants were 1.79 and 2.22 times greater than those of herbs (P < 0.05), respectively. Core above- and below-ground anatomical traits in woody plants were highly positively correlated (P < 0.01), indicating strong 'functional integration.' Conversely, herbaceous plants lacked significant cross-organ structural correlations (P > 0.05) and displayed clear 'trait decoupling,' relying primarily on 'phenological escape' and significantly elevated mycorrhizal colonization rates (MIs) for resource acquisition. Principal component analysis demonstrated that the first axis captured 48.7% of the total variation, driven predominantly by below-ground traits such as root diameter, with significant differences observed between life forms (P < 0.05). This underscores that below-ground traits explain the strategic divergence of plant functional groups in lava plateau habitats more effectively than above-ground traits. Ultimately, our results validate the hypotheses that extreme habitats amplify resource trade-offs between woody and herbaceous plants, and that below-ground traits act as robust indicators of strategy divergence, offering essential scientific insights into plant survival and adaptation mechanisms in fragile ecosystems.
This study compared the effects of a single-strain microbial inoculant, Brevundimonas diminuta NH1, and a synthetic microbial community (FSQN) composed of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FH1, Ochrobactrum tritici S112, Gluconacetobacter liquefaciens QZR14, and B. diminuta NH1 on the rhizosphere soil and root microbiomes of rice (Oryza sativa) to investigate how these inoculation strategies differ in microbiome regulation and growth promotion. High-throughput sequencing was used to assess microbial α- and β-diversity, community composition, predicted bacterial and fungal functions, and correlations between microbiome shifts and rice growth traits. We found that neither inoculant significantly affected microbial α-diversity, but both significantly altered β-diversity in rhizosphere soil and roots. Compared with the control, the single-strain treatment mainly enriched Mortierella, Glaciozyma, and Bovista in rhizosphere soil, and Clostridium sensu stricto, Cronobacter, Exiguobacterium, Kosakonia, and Pseudomonas in roots. The synthetic community mainly enriched Mortierella, Tausonia, Fusarium, and Glomerella in rhizosphere soil, and Exiguobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Rhodotorula in roots. Functional prediction indicated that the single-strain inoculant enhanced sulfur respiration, ureolysis, xylanolysis, and denitrification-related functions, whereas the synthetic community enhanced ectomycorrhizal, endomycorrhizal, and plant-saprotrophic functions. Shoot height and dry weight were may positively associated with enriched taxa and functions, particularly Mortierella, Exiguobacterium, and endophytic functions.
This study aimed to explore the effect of the interaction between photosynthetic and antioxidative responses on UV-B tolerance (UV-B1: 15 min; UV-B2: 30 min) in two cultivars of watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansfeld]: (1) Celebration; and (2) Faroe. The photosynthetic pigment content was not affected by the UV-B2 radiation, probably due to the protective impact of anthocyanin accumulation in the leaves of the watermelon cultivars. The induction of the accumulation of the inactive reaction centres, the reduction of the utilisation of the absorbed light energy photochemically, and the induction of the non-photochemical quenching of the light energy were more significantly increased in cv. Faroe due to UV-B2 radiation. The impairment in the photosynthetic electron transport reactions and insufficient activity of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and guaiacol peroxidase in cv. Faroe under the UV-B2 stress led to increased oxidative stress and membrane damage, as demonstrated by higher levels of H2O2 and malondialdehyde content. However, in cv. Celebration, the photosynthetic efficiency was less affected by the UV-B2 stress, hence reducing the oxidative stress and membrane damage due to higher antioxidant capacity, which allowed us to conclude that cv. Celebration is more tolerant to UV-B stress than cv. Faroe.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a crucial global cereal crop, severely threatened by the brown planthopper (BPH), which causes extensive damage through direct feeding and virus transmission. To elucidate the resistance mechanism mediated by the BPH-resistance gene Bph6, metabolic responses to BPH infestation were compared between the resistant rice line G6 and the susceptible cultivar Nipponbare using LC-MS-based metabolomics combined with quantitative real-time PCR analysis. The Bph6 gene conferred both antixenotic and antibiotic resistance to BPH. A total of 673 metabolites were identified across all samples. BPH infestation induced more pronounced metabolic alterations in susceptible Nipponbare than in the resistant G6 line. Compared with Nipponbare, G6 exhibited a more coordinated defense response characterized by enhanced accumulation of amino acid-derived metabolites, flavonoids, and serotonin-associated compounds. Consistently, the expression levels of key biosynthetic genes, including TDC and CYP71A1 involved in serotonin biosynthesis and CHS and F3H associated with flavonoid biosynthesis, were significantly upregulated in G6. These findings demonstrate that Bph6 mediates a more stable and effective defense metabolism in rice through coordinated regulation of primary and secondary metabolism, particularly flavonoid- and serotonin-related pathways.
Climate change is one of the key drivers of evolution. The environment is changing at a faster pace inducing variety of stresses on plants, animals, and microbes. These stresses or adverse stimuli from the environment affect the growth, development, and viability of organisms. Stressors like drought, salinity, heat, cold, and heavy metal poisoning affect plant growth and productivity significantly. Plant has evolved various mechanism to survive under this these abiotic stresses. Recently, the role of transcription factors (TFs), which binds to a short 18-22 nucleotides long DNA molecule, has gained attention. Our study investigates the role and of one of the TFs to improve survivability of plants under drought, salt, heat, cold and heavy metal stressors. This component is known as Dehydration-Responsive Element-Binding (DREB) TFs. These are factors promote or inhibit many stresses inducible genes. DREB indirectly increases the activity of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are released by plants in response to stress by interacting with the cis-element of DRE/CRT (dehydration-responsive element/C-repeat) present on the promoter region of the stress-induced genes. Harnessing this can help us in improving the crop productivity, crop quality, and crop viability. This review analyses and summarises the recent advancements of research regarding this versatile motif.
Oat (Avena sativa) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) are increasingly being grown and consumed for their 'functional food' properties, but they also accumulate large amounts of stored phosphorus (P) as phytic acid (PA) in the seed, leading to reduced zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) bioavailability. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in the soil colonise the roots of oat and barley and can provide an additional source for P, Zn, and Fe, but their effect on the bioavailability of Zn and Fe is not known. We grew six varieties each of oat and barley, and either amended the soil with P fertiliser or not, then inoculated with a commercial source of the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis, or not. In both crops, AM fungal inoculation and P fertiliser each increased the accumulation of PA. While the bioavailability of Fe in oat was reduced by AM fungal inoculation, Zn was unaffected. In barley, Zn bioavailability was reduced with AM fungi, but Fe bioavailability was unaffected. The bioavailability of Zn and Fe in both oat and barley was extremely low. Both crops store luxury P as PA rather than converting it to grain, so micronutrient bioavailability in oat and barley is highly dependent on mycorrhizal contribution of Zn and Fe.
Grape is a major economic crop in northwestern China, playing a vital role in the region's agricultural economy. However, in recent years, soil salinization has intensified due to global warming and improper irrigation practices, resulting in significant declines in grape yield and quality. Addressing the adverse effects of salt stress on grape growth is of critical importance. Therefore, this study explored the effects of the exogenous application of microbial fertilizer Bacillus velezensis GB03 on the photosynthesis of Pinot Noir grapes under salt stress. Using Pinot Noir plants under normal growth conditions as the control group, salt stress was simulated by applying 200 mM NaCl. The microbial fertilizer GB03 was first diluted with water and then applied exogenously at three concentrations: low (300-fold dilution), medium (200-fold dilution), and high (100-fold dilution). The study measured the effects of these treatments on photosynthetic gas exchange parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, relative chlorophyll content, and single-plant yield under salt stress. The results demonstrated that salt stress significantly reduced photosynthesis in grape leaves, whereas the application of microbial fertilizer notably enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and fruit yield. Among the treatments, the medium-concentration fertilizer group exhibited the most pronounced improvements in net photosynthetic rate (A), transpiration rate (E), stomatal conductance (gs), and single-plant yield (SPY). Furthermore, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and relative chlorophyll content in this group were significantly higher than those in the other treatment groups. Principal component analysis confirmed that the medium-concentration treatment had the highest photosynthetic capacity, suggesting that it effectively alleviated salt stress by enhancing photosynthetic performance, thereby increasing fruit yield. This study provides a scientific foundation for the use of microbial fertilizers to mitigate soil salinization and improve salt tolerance in grape cultivation. The findings have significant implications for enhancing grape yield and quality under saline conditions.
Genotype is an important factor for calibrating plant response to UV-B stress, but little is known about how it reduces yield. Oryza rufipogon (weedy rice) is sensitive to UV stress. It was crossed with Oryza sativa cv. Meghadambaru (a UV-tolerant genotype), and the impact on stress tolerance was assessed in the progeny and progenitors in F1 and F2 populations. UV stress affected photosynthetic activity in leaf, lemma + palea, and awns, showing inhibitory effects on SPAD, maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), electron transport rate (ETR), photochemical quenching (qP), maximal fluorescence (Fm), and O-J-I-P curve in all genotypes. The weedy traits of O. rufipogon and UV-tolerance traits of cv. Meghadambaru were inherited by the integrated hybrid genotypes from the parental cross in F1 and F2 generations. O. rufipogon exhibited rapid evolution to gain UV stress tolerance in the natural cross, while cv. Meghadambaru exhibited a resurgence of weedy attributes, such as obtaining long awns. Flavonoid development genes of cv. Meghadambaru and long awn genes of O. rufipogon were found to be dominant alleles. Thus, weedy genes did not weaken the expression of flavonoid genes and vice-versa. Our results provided genomic evidence for the rice domestication process. Cultivated rice can be feralised into weedy rice, and weedy rice could be de-domesticated into cultivated rice.
Weed infestation and drought stress are major biotic and abiotic constraints to global agricultural productivity, causing substantial yield losses and escalating management costs. Weeds alone contribute to an predicted annual economic loss of USD32 billion, while drought can reduce crop productivity by nearly 50%, posing a serious threat to food security. In the perspective of Sustainable Development Goals SDG-2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG-13 (Climate Action), this 2-year study (2022-2023) evaluated the impact of drought stress on the efficacy of the herbicide (clodinafop + metsulfuron) against the weeds Phalaris minor and Medicago denticulata in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Herbicide was applied to well-watered (WW) and drought-stressed (DS) environments, 10 days after irrigation was withheld in the DS treatments. Results indicated a significant reduction in herbicide efficacy under DS, with a greater reduction observed against M. denticulata, leading to poor weed management. The survival of weeds under DS conditions elevated oxidative stress in wheat, particularly in the presence of M. denticulata, which caused higher reactive oxygen species accumulation and greater yield losses compared with P. minor. A clear association was observed between weed biomass, oxidative damage, and yield reduction. The findings highlight that wheat is more vulnerable to M. denticulata under drought, emphasizing the need to consider environmental interactions in designing effective and climate-resilient weed management strategies.
Our previous work demonstrated that hypergravity can induce beneficial phenotypes - most notably enhanced root growth - yet the anatomical and molecular basis of this response has remained unclear. In the present study, root anatomical studies and related parameters revealed that hypergravity-induced growth enhancement is driven by increased cell proliferation coupled with upregulation of transcripts associated with cell division and cell wall biosynthesis. Enhanced root growth and improved abiotic stress resilience observed in our laboratory studies suggest translational potential for agriculture. However, validation across genotypes and field environments is essential to establish their agronomic value. Here, we evaluated the effects of hypergravity treatment on phenotypic and yield-related traits in wheat genotypes - UAS 347, UAS 375, and UAS 446 - under greenhouse and field conditions. Hypergravity consistently enhanced seedling performance in the greenhouse and persisted in the field. Field evaluations across two winter cropping seasons further demonstrated that hypergravity significantly increases key agronomic traits. Specifically, grain yield was increased in UAS 347 and UAS 446, whereas no change was observed in UAS 375. Overall, this study confirms hypergravity's genotype-independent enhancement of root growth, identifies key cellular and molecular drivers of this response, and provides field-level evidence to improve yield in wheat.
Crop productivity and food safety are seriously threatened by heavy metal contamination, especially with nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). The purpose of this study was to assess how well zinc-boron (Zn-B) foliar application and irrigation with Arthrospira platensis extract (APE) reduced Ni and Pb stress in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). After being treated with 10% APE or Zn-B, wheat plants were exposed to 100 μM Ni or Pb. Gene expression, heavy metal accumulation, antioxidant enzyme activities, photosynthetic efficiency, and plant growth parameters were evaluated. Growth, photosynthetic pigments, and antioxidant defenses were all markedly hampered by both metals, but Ni's effects were more pronounced. These effects were successfully lessened by APE treatment, which restored shoot and root length, leaf area, and photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm) better than Zn-B. Additionally, APE increased antioxidant activity (SOD, CAT, APX), and their corresponding genes were upregulated. Furthermore, APE enhanced yield characteristics, such as spike length and grain weight, and dramatically decreased Ni and Pb accumulation by 57.4% and 50.9%, respectively. Potential in phycoremediation is suggested by increased bioconcentration and transfer factors for Zn and B under APE treatment. According to these results, APE is a viable, environmentally friendly method for improving plant resistance to heavy metal stress, increasing wheat yield, and lowering possible health hazards.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is a nutritionally valuable legume crops; however, its productivity is significantly constrained by drought stress. This study aimed to evaluate morpho-physiological traits and molecular response of chickpea genotypes under well-watered (control) and drought conditions to identify drought-tolerant lines. Plants of 83 chickpea genotypes (55-60 days old) were subjected to drought by withholding irrigation until soil moisture dropped 20-40%. Key physiological and agronomic traits such as relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI), chlorophyll content, yield parameters, drought tolerance efficiency (DTE), and drought susceptibility index (DSI) were measured. Data analysis was performed using R software for pairwise distance, correlation, Principal Component Aanalysis (PCA), and heat mapping. PCA explained 53.8% of the total variability, effectively separating genotypes based on stress response. Additionally, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to evaluate genetic variability. Genotypes SAGL19008 and SAGL162380 showed higher RWC, MSI, and chlorophyll content under drought, while genotype ICC4958 exhibited the highest DTE (101.19%) and the lowest DSI (60.54%), indicating strong drought tolerance. The identified genotypes hold potential for incorporation into breeding programs aimed at improving drought resilience in chickpea, thereby contributing to food security and sustainable agriculture.
