Governments can use three ways to maintain biodiversity: spatial planning, planning of processes (management) and communication. Good communication between scientists, planners, managers and users of urban green areas may be essential to achieve success in maintaining urban biodiversity. In this case study, we have tried to find answers to the question of whether public participation fosters biodiversity by comparing a city in The Netherlands (The Hague), where citizens can participate in decision-making processes, with its twin city in Poland (Warsaw), where the authorities traditionally have not involved its citizens in the planning and management of green areas. The policy plan for green areas in The Hague offers a framework for realizing a sustainable green infrastructure by means of planning, management and use of urban green space. The policy plan describes the status and management of the most important green areas: nature reserves and parks. In this city, it is easy for citizens to obtain information about the management of green areas, but this is very difficult in a city like Warsaw, where management plans are lacking. In Warsaw, much useful information is collected by biologists but only a very small part of the data is provided to, and can be obtained through, the offices of the districts' Department of Environmental Protection. In The Hague, fewer data about the presence of species are collected than in Warsaw, but most of this data can be obtained easily from the Service City Management. Several NGOs in The Hague regularly publish articles about the status of nature within their town and local environment. This stimulates people to observe species and to collect data. The number of volunteers who are active in collecting data on the status of species is still increasing. The collected data are passed to a databank or directly to the managers of the park concerned. The last option will often be consultative, which may lead to empowerment concerning park management. It appears that public participation in the management of green areas will foster recruitment of volunteers who can help to maintain urban biodiversity.
The West African scelionid egg parasitoid Telenomus isis was released into Kenya in 2005 for control of the noctuid stemborer Busseola fusca. Pre- and post-release surveys were carried out between 2004 and 2006 to assess parasitism of eggs of noctuid stemborers in ecozones where B. fusca is the dominant pest, namely in the mid-altitude areas of Taveta and Kiboko, in the highlands along the Eldoret–Kitale transect, and in Wundanyi, which stretches from the mid-altitudes to the highlands. Apart from Eldoret, where surveys were carried out weekly during the cropping seasons of 2004–2005, the sites were visited once during the short and/or long rainy seasons. In addition, after release of T. isis in Wundanyi in October 2005, two post-release surveys were conducted in 2006. Busseola fusca was the dominant stemborer species at Eldoret and Wundanyi. At Taveta and Kiboko only eggs of the noctuid Sesamia calamistis were recovered. There was generally a high variation in the numbers of egg batches and eggs per batch among the sites surveyed. Most of the infested plants had one egg mass. Egg parasitism varied between 10% and 32% across the study sites. The predominant parasitoid species was the scelionid Telenomus busseolae while the trichogrammatids Trichogramma bournieri, Trichogrammatoidea nr. lutea. Trichogrammatoidea nr. cryptophlebiae and Trichogramma mwanzai were minor species. In 2006, T. isis was recovered in Wundanyi. This study showed that although egg parasitoid species diversity was higher, egg parasitism was considerably lower in Kenya than in western Africa.
Native plants are the most important living material in landscape planning. However, the use of wild trees, shrubs and herbaceous plant species in landscape design is uncommon in Turkey. This study was carried out to identify native plant species of interests in the landscape planning of roadside banks. Between May 2005 and September 2006, 23 locations along the Erzurum–Uzundere state highway, eastern Anatolia, at altitudes from 875 to 2119 m, were studied using in situ plant surveys, floristic plant analyses and species sampling. This resulted in identification of 282 plant species in 49 families, which, based on their aesthetic and functional characteristics, were determined to be important in landscape planning.
(2009). Biodiversity and biogeographic significance of the Sierra Chinajá in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala: a first look. International Journal of Biodiversity Science & Management: Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 115-131.
Discussions on climate change and potential mechanisms to support conservation efforts have fixed the attention on incentives to conserve and protect forests. However, incentives alone will not do the job for forest conservation; what might? We use the case of Kutai National Park to examine the potential for incentives to boost conservation and the urgent need to simultaneously apply disincentives against conversion of the park. Kutai National Park is an extreme case: conservation values have to compete with the value of vast deposits of high-grade coal. The park management unit has tried to calculate the conservation benefits derived from the park ecosystem, but these values are miniscule compared to the alternatives of mining and logging. Incentives for encroachment and the conversion of the park are the easily accessible timber and enormous known coal deposits. These resources provide immediate tangible benefits for the settlers in the park and the local government to exploit the park, and affect local possibilities for conserving it. If we are to be serious about conserving important ecosystems, incentives alone are insufficient. Action is needed to ensure that all stakeholders support the national government's commitment to preserve representative examples of biodiversity and ecosystems; each stakeholder will have to make some sacrifices.
The establishment of protected areas is seen as one solution to preserve remaining components of natural ecosystems. However, the preservation role of protected areas may conflict with human activities such as industrial development and tourism. Canada's Banff National Park (BNP) hosts about 3 million visitors per year, has approximately 8000 full-time residents, and is bisected by nationally significant rail and road transportation routes. The upgrading of the Trans-Canada Highway (TCH) from two to four lanes within BNP has highlighted the park's conflicting roles. The TCH in BNP has been subject to pioneering efforts to reduce its negative effects on wildlife mortality and movement. Over 12 years of monitoring, BNP's highway mitigation measures have made this stretch of road one of the most intensely studied in the world. Both adaptive management and flexible institutional arrangements made this effort possible. The results of monitoring studies are being shared with a broad audience, from transportation practitioners and ecologists to the general public and school children. By learning more about the success of highway mitigation, a community of informed citizens is taking shape and becoming active in their understanding of nature and science.
The Cold Desert of India is known for specific topography, severe climate and unique vegetation. The Lahaul valley in Himachal Pradesh, part of a proposed Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve, is rich in medicinal plants, and local people practice the Tibetan System of Medicine. A few studies are available on medicinal plants there are no integrated studies. A total of 354 medicinal plants, belonging to 208 genera and 76 families were recorded. The area ranges in altitude between 2801–3800 m, and shady moist and forested habitats were identified as having the most medicinal plant species. The occurrence of near endemic, endemic, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable and near threatened species indicates high anthropogenic pressure and that the area has high conservation value. Most of these species are commercially viable. An assessment of populations of threatened species using standard ecological methods, and notification of key areas as medicinal plants conservation areas is suggested. Also, mass reproduction for ex situ conservation and to ensure availability of quality planting material for cultivation, together with education and awareness programmes for large-scale cultivation are suggested.
Bigeye Croaker (Micropogonias megalops Gilbert 1890) is captured in the Upper Gulf of California (UGC) by local community fishers from San Felipe in Baja California, El Golfo de Santa Clara and Puerto Peñasco in Sonora. The calculated sustainable fishery index (SFI) identifies four production periods, one of low capture before 1999 (∼1451.49 t year−1); a second of fleet expansion (∼2408 t year−1); a third showing a production decline related to overfishing (> 923.85 t year−1); and a fourth of recovery, with standardization of production of about 1057 t year−1 (2004). A GIS survey indicated that almost 84% of the Bigeye Croaker fishery in the UGC occurs within two marine protected areas, of which almost 74% takes place inside the Biosphere Reserve of the UGC, and almost 79% in the Vaquita Refuge Area. Bigeye Croaker captured in the marine protected areas generates a gross profit of around US$501,000 year−1, with a return rate close to 73%. Fishing effort in the marine protected areas needs to undergo an interdisciplinary and complex evaluation due to the presence of endangered species in the region. This requires adequate management practices to enhance marine conservation without compromising fishermen's individual interests. Some approaches to manage this fishery within the protected marine areas are discussed.
This study examined the impact of anthropogenic disturbances on species richness, pattern of diversity, forest structure and regeneration of tree species in the Madhupur Sal (Shorea robusta C.F. Gaertn) forests of Bangladesh. The forest sites were classified as low, medium and highly disturbed based on the intensity of historic and current anthropogenic impacts. Plant species richness and biological diversity varied along a disturbance gradient in different forest types. A total of 134 plant species were identified. The highest plant species richness (125 species) was found in the low disturbed forest type, and the lowest species richness (19 species) in the highly disturbed forest type. Plant density (except herbs and saplings) and basal area of mature trees declined with an increase in disturbance intensity. Only a few snags (4.4 ha−1) were found in the low disturbed forest type. The diameter and height distributions revealed that the low disturbed forest type comprised a mixture of very young to giant trees, while the medium and highly disturbed forest types contained only young trees. The relative abundance of the early successional species, S. robusta,increased with the intensity of human disturbances due to its regeneration potential. Highly disturbed forests can no longer be considered natural habitats for natural plant species due to shifting cultivation and agroforestry.
People in developing countries traditionally rely on plants for their primary healthcare. This dependence is relatively higher in forests in remote areas due to the lack of access to modern health facilities and easy availability of the plant products. We carried out an ethno-medicinal survey in Teknaf Game Reserve (TGR), a heavily degraded forest and conservation area in southern Bangladesh, to explore the diversity of plants used by Rohingya refugees for treating various ailments. The study also documented the traditional utilization, collection and perceptions of medicinal plants by the Rohingyas residing on the edges of this conservation area. We collected primary information through direct observation and by interviewing older respondents using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 34 plant species in 28 families were frequently used by the Rohingyas to treat 45 ailments, ranging from simple headaches to highly complex eye and heart diseases. For medicinal preparations and treating various ailments, aboveground plant parts were used more than belowground parts. The collection of medicinal plants was mostly from the TGR.
A large number of people rely on medicinal plants for maintaining their health and treating diseases. Official data on medicinal plant markets are, however, virtually non-existent and available local-level case studies do not allow generalisations. This study investigates the market efficiency and benefit distribution in the Nepal–India medicinal plant market by building a national-level dataset along the market chain from harvester in Nepal to regional wholesaler in India. Data were collected using open-ended questionnaires administered to medicinal plant harvesters (n = 639), traders (n = 166) and central wholesalers (n = 90) in 15 districts in Nepal and regional wholesalers (n = 53) in India. Results show indications of market inefficiency; there are spatial arbitrage opportunities and skewed distribution of net marketing margins. Harvesters operate with net margins at 34–55% of the Indian wholesaler price, while net margins for traders and central wholesalers are − 5–20% and 25–36%, respectively. There seems to be an exploitative relationship between central wholesalers and traders. The average annual value of unprocessed medicinal plant exports from Nepal is estimated at PPP US$39–159 million, making this the country's fifth most important export commodity; only a third of the potential government revenue is collected. It is argued that medicinal plants are currently neglected in national development interventions and policies in Nepal.
This paper considers the current regulatory framework of small-scale carbon sinks in the clean development mechanism (CDM). The legal characteristics are assessed from perspectives related to regulation theory. To what extent does CDM regulation support active biodiversity management in the small-scale implementation of afforestation and reforestation projects? After analysing the above question, fresh concepts for better consideration of biodiversity aspects during the implementation of small-scale carbon sink projects in developing countries are presented. These new concepts are examined in the framework of the current process of legal establishment, which seeks to encourage cost-effective project implementation in cases where biodiversity impacts are appropriately taken into account during small-scale projects. Is it possible to create a workable and plausible conceptual set-up for considering additional efforts to preserve and enhance biodiversity while sequestering carbon – and to do it in a way that makes it possible to reward those efforts in the CDM framework? These questions are discussed here in a multidisciplinary manner. It is found that biodiversity specialized carbon management, which includes the new concepts, can be seen as a potential small-scale project framework for maintaining biodiversity and local development in and around a small-scale project area.
Information on nesting behaviour, productivity in natural tree cavities and man-made hives and natural enemies of resident stinging honeybee sub-species was gathered for a period of 1 year in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Three sub-species of the honeybee Apis mellifera occur in this area. Six types of hive were sited in appropriate locations and colony dynamics studied. The bees also nested in tree cavities facing east and west, and also in most types of hive, with the exception of burnt brick ground level ‘Chikka’ hives. There were few natural enemies of bees in the area. The density of honeybee colonies per hectare, occupancy of various types of hive and quantity of honey and beeswax harvested from various types of hive all favoured beekeeping in this area. Development of apiculture in the area and its role in conservation of the Udzungwa ecosystem are discussed.
An exploratory study was conducted in Feni, in southeast Bangladesh, to determine the status and potentials of palm husbandry in the rural economy. A total of 48 households in the study area were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The farmers were categorized into five groups based on their landholdings. Palms comprised the highest percentage (53%) of homegarden species. The most common palm was betel nut (Areca catechu). This species was distributed over five different geographical sites, of which roadsides were most common. Farmers with medium landholdings had the greatest number of palms. Farmers typically received considerably less compensation than distributors higher in the marketing chain who handled their product. Juice or sap from the wild date palm (Phoenix sylvestris) gave the highest net average profit per liter and annual income per tree. Landless farmers gain the highest proportion of their mean annual income from palm husbandry.
Both colonial and post-colonial conservation policies ignored the potential role of traditional African cultural practices in contributing to conservation goals. Recently, there has been a growing global interest in these practices, although recognition in official conservation policies is still minimal in many countries. This global interest is enthused by the reality that although the use of wild species and their habitats remains the foundation for human survival all over the world, there is a huge risk of losing these species. Factors such as rapid human population increase, inadequate local support for conservation policies, limited strategies for survival among local communities and inadequate capacity of the government to fund law enforcement operations against illegal activities subject the species and habitats to unsustainable use. Traditional cultural practices, among other strategies, have promising potential to enhance sustainable resource use and conservation and, therefore, realize the desire for ecological and social sustainability. Using examples and data drawn from different parts of Tanzania, this paper attempts to uncover some of these potentials on which policy-makers and conservationists can capitalize to augment conservation work. The paper begins by reviewing the ecological impacts of two major conservation problems facing Tanzania – species overexploitation and habitat loss. Then the possible advantages of traditional cultural practices (compared to conventional conservation strategies) are outlined. The traditional practices are presented as more cost-effective, more socially acceptable and having minimal risk of failure. Furthermore, the idea of reviving these practices coincides with the philosophy of co-management approaches, which advocate sharing of power, rights and responsibilities between the state and local resource users. This is based on the idea that local communities constitute voices ‘from the ground’ that should be heard. In showing the efficacy of traditional African cultural practices, the paper specifically focuses on four elements: traditional institutions, taboos, sacred sites and totemic species.
This study considered traditional ethno-medicinal practices of rural people of Feni district, Bangladesh, focusing on their utilization of medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge. Ninety households were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Plant resources are used to treat 26 different ailments ranging from simple cuts to diabetes. In total, 46 medicinal plants are as used, of which a third are trees. Homesteads are the primary source and few medicinal plants are cultivated. Aboveground plant parts are most used, particularly leaves. The diverse patterns of use of different medicinal plant parts shows the considerable indigenous knowledge of rural people and is generally widely available.
An assessment of land-use conflicts was conducted in three semi-arid villages within the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem that are important wildlife dispersal areas and migratory routes linking northeast Tanzania protected areas. Data were collected through household and extension staff interviews, archive data from village government offices and field visits. Conflicts varied across villages and were mainly boundary conflicts with Lake Manyara National Park (LMNP). They included crop destruction and livestock depredation by wild animals, land scarcity, loss of former Manyara Ranch land to Tanzania Lands Conservation Trust (TLCT), which has imposed grazing restrictions, and insufficient buffer zone. An analysis of gender conflicts varied across villages. Several mitigation measures are suggested by both local communities and field extension staff. These include realization of economic benefits from wildlife-related enterprises, relocation of people to low-density areas, implementation of compensation schemes for destruction made by wildlife, intensification of patrols, fencing of the park, need for land-use plans and need for villages to formulate their own natural resources management by-laws. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations.
Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an important pest of maize, cotton and Phaseolus bean in western Africa, has never been described as a crop pest from Eastern and southern Africa (ESA), although it was reported in the wild. Generally, little is known about the host plant range and the diversity of Mussidia spp. in ESA. Thus, surveys were carried out in Kenya between 2005 and 2007 to assess the species diversity and host plants of Mussidia. Eight plant species were found to host two Mussidia spp. and six morphospecies, which occur sympatrically in the coastal region. Only one Mussidia sp. was found attacking one host plant in the mid-altitudes. The spatial distribution of M. nr. nigrivenella, M. 'madagascariensis' and M. fiorii was studied. M. nr. nigrivenella and M. 'madagascariensis' larvae were aggregated on Canavalia cathartica and Strychnos madagascariensis, respectively, while the distribution of M. fiorii adults on Kigelia africana was regular. Sampling plans were developed for three Mussidia spp. on their respective host plants, allowing estimation of pest densities. The occurrence of M. nigrivenella in ESA could not be determined with absolute certainty.
Developments in international and national law and policy over the last two decades have changed the working environment for those in charge of managing and making decisions about genetic resources, including those held on-farm by farming communities. A collaborative programme with national partners in Vietnam, Mexico, Peru, Burkina Faso, Morocco and Hungary, and Bioversity International (formerly the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) has designed tools to assist scientists and decision-makers to understand how scientific and institutional information about in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity on-farm can be integrated and inform policy choices. This paper shares information about the critical components of the policy development process and how the process might enable a participatory, bottom-up approach for supporting the conservation and use of agricultural biodiversity on-farm.
Commons scholarship has done a poor job of studying drivers of change, their impact on commons institutions, and how these institutions and other social arrangements are responding to such change. This paper examines the multiple impacts that demographic and cultural change through human out-migration is having on a commons regime in a high-biodiversity region of Oaxaca, Mexico. The findings suggest that the region's forest communities face an uncertain future. While change through out-migration can undermine traditional governance systems and erode social and cultural reproduction, innovative institutional adaptations and the existence of strong transnational ties may help reduce community vulnerability. Within this context, the paper discusses the implications for land use and forest biodiversity, and in doing so adds a new layer of complexity to the body of work examining the consequences of rural depopulation on Mexican forest landscapes.
