This study aims to determine the distribution and potential ecological risk of heavy metals and to identify the possible sources of heavy metal contamination in the surface sediments of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu, Nepal. The sediment samples were analyzed for their pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter (OM), texture, and heavy metal concentration of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb. Various indices such as contamination factor (CF), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), modified degree of contamination (mCd), pollution load index (PLI), and potential ecological risk index (RI) were calculated to assess the risk of heavy metals. The sediment exhibited a slightly alkaline pH, with significant variation in EC along different river sections. The OM levels were moderate in the upstream and high in the middle and downstream. The sediment was predominantly sandy and loamy sandy in composition. The concentration of Pb was below the limit of detection (<0.01 μg/g) in all sediment samples. The ecological risk associated with Cu, Zn, and Cd in the sediment is categorized as low to moderate based on the RI. The HCA indicates that the upstream has less heavy metal pollution than the middle and downstream sections. There are significant positive correlations between Cu, Zn, and Cd in terms of their concentration. The PCA suggests anthropogenic activities, such as the mixing of municipal and domestic sewage, hospital waste, and industrial activities, may serve as sources of heavy metals in the river sediment. It is necessary to regularly monitor the sediment and water of Bagmati River to identify the sources of heavy metal pollution and record changes in the level of contamination.
Recent weather pattern in Nepal indicates that there is a considerable impact on the weather system, which is believed to be due to both global and regional warming. The change in weather has started causing serious damage in the Himalayan region and elsewhere. The debate on the minimization of carbon emission through reduced use of fossil fuel has been ongoing for some couple of decades. However, the carbon emission caused by the production of cement and concrete has been less discussed and highlighted. In addition, unnecessarily excessive use of cement and steel is counterproductive due to increased project costs. Therefore, there is a strong need for the reduction in the use of construction material consisting cementitious and steel products while developing the infrastructure and hydropower projects in Nepal where use of underground space will be extensive in near future. Use of Norwegian Method of Tunnelling (NMT) could serve as an alternative to the reduced use of cement, concrete and steel products. This Key-Note lecture highlights the principals used in Norwegian Method of Tunnelling (NMT), benefit it gives in the reduced use of concrete and steel, which helps to optimize project costs, contributes to reduce emission and assists to enhance sustainable development of infrastructure and hydropower projects in Nepal.
Groundwater plays a vital role in sustaining agriculture, domestic supply, and ecological balance in Nepal’s mid‑hill regions, where surface water availability is highly seasonal. This study assesses groundwater potential in part of Kavrepalanchowk District using the Cosine Amplitude Method (CAM), a statistical approach that integrates multiple thematic layers to delineate potential zones. In this study, multiple thematic layers such as elevation, slope, aspect, curvature, topographic position index (TPI), topographic wetness index (TWI), drainage density, geology and lineament density, were weighted and combined within a GIS framework to delineate groundwater potential map. The resulting map classified the area into five distinct groundwater potential zones: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. Among the controlling parameters, lineament density (15.8%) and the Topographic Wetness Index (14.4%) were the most influential parameters, underscoring the critical role of structural features and surface saturation in groundwater occurrence. Other factors such as aspect, drainage density, and elevation contributed significantly, while geology and curvature exhibited comparatively lower influence. These findings demonstrate that geomorphological and hydrological factors exert greater control over groundwater potential than lithological characteristics in the study area. The outcomes provide a scientific basis for prioritizing recharge interventions and developing effective groundwater management strategies.
This study investigates seismic performance analysis of geogrid stabilized foundations under numerical modeling using a Geotechnical Engineering Software, PLAXIS 2D. The research focuses on consecutive acceleration differences between floors to assess the effectiveness of geogrid in improving structural stability. The results of the study show that geogrid is effective in mitigating sudden change in acceleration from a floor to another, which leads to a homogeneous seismic response. Without geogrid, differences between consecutive floors were 0.049g (Basement–1st), 0.059g (1st–2nd), 0.032g (2nd–3rd), -0.023g (3rd–4th), and 0.053g (4th–5th). But with the addition of geogrid (1.8B width and 2m spacing case), corresponding differences were 0.017g, 0.025g, 0.034g, -0.007g, and 0.087g, respectively. The results indicate that the foundation stabilized by the geogrid experiences less abrupt change in acceleration floor to floor and thus performs less abrupt jumps that tend to cause more structural damage. For example, the basement-first-floor difference reduced by 65.3% and first-second-floor difference reduced by 57.6%, which is more smoothed seismic response. The study shows the benefits of inter-floor acceleration difference reduction, and general foundation stability enhancement by geogrid reinforcement. The study highlights the importance of geogrid-reinforced foundations in seismically active areas, and its findings helps in future structural design.
The present research work deals with the petrographic analysis of the Tista sand deposits which is exposed along the river bank and point bars. The constituent minerals of the sand deposits are quartz (73.18%), microcline (8.10%), orthoclase (0.15%), plagioclase (1.16%), lithic grains (1.37%), muscovite (6.59%), biotite (3.67%), heavy minerals, organic matters, minor amounts of matrix whereas fine-grained quartz and clay constitute the matrix materials. The heavy minerals include pyroxene, amphiboles, zircon, tourmaline, garnet, chlorite and opaque minerals. The major minerals and the lithic grains can be expressed as quartz>feldspar>lithic grains using the QFL ternary diagram. Among the heavy minerals, garnet is the most abundant mineral. The presence of magnetite was established using its magnetic susceptibility. Ninety-two percent of the sand specimens have the mineralogical index value ranging from 80 to 100, which suggests that the Tista sand deposits were derived from an extremely weathered condition. The QPK (Quartz-Plagioclase-K-feldspar) ternary plot reveals that all the sand samples fall near the Quartz-apex and the prevalence of more stable K-feldspar over the less steady plagioclase feldspar. The bivariate diagram of ln(Q/R) versus ln(Q/F) suggests the metamorphic provenance for the investigated sand deposits. The Q/(F+L) vs Qp/(F+L) plot indicates that the humid climatic conditions prevailed during the deposition these sand deposits.
Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) was determined in the impure marly carbonates from 26 sites within the Tethys Himalaya (Tambakurkur (TKF) and Mukut Limestone (MLF) Formations; Triassic age) in upper Dolpo, WesternNepal. Excluding one anomalous site, the average magnetic susceptibility for 25 sites has a range of (76.6±23.7 to 240.3±11.1) ×10-6 SI. Average Jelinek’s degree of anisotropy was weak (1.013-1.049), while the AMS ellipsoid shaperanged from moderately prolate to weakly oblate. Ferro(i)magnetic minerals (magnetite with its maghemitized derivatives and pyrrhotite) contributed to remanence. These together with diamagnetic (e.g., calcite) and paramagnetic (e.g., phyllosilicates) minerals contributed to the AMS. Distribution of Principal AMS axes reveals three distinctmagnetic fabric patterns (MFPs): (i) A tectonic fabric (MFP1) represented by NE-SW directed magnetic lineations (kmaxaxes) with shallow plunges dominantly to SW (before) or NE (after) bedding tilt-correction) and preferably NW or SE directed shallow plunging kmin axes implying a sub-vertical NE-SW magnetic foliation; (ii) A second pattern (MFP2),also of tectonic origin, in which the kmax axes exhibit shallow plunge mainly towards N or S and the kmin form girdles along an E-W plane (in situ) but align mainly towards E or W after bedding-tilt correction; (iii) a third pattern (MFP3),with the kmax axes orthogonal to bedding (S0) that is subparallel to the girdle defined by the other two axes (kint andkmin) representing an inverse structural magnetic fabric. MFP1 was clearly acquired before folding, while MFP2 developed during a longer period of active/progressive folding. MFP1 with the mean trend of kmax at N46°E (after fold plunge and bedding correction) is interpreted as the reflection of mineral stretching lineation (known from rocks of relatively high grade metamorphics in adjoining areas) formed simultaneously and/or prior to the earliest Eo-Himalayan (D1 and/or D2) deformation events. MFP2, with the mean corrected trend of kmax axes at N4°W, is inferred to post-datethe MFP1 and correspond to Neo-Himalayan deformation events which promoted thermo-chemical transformations leading to the production of pyrrhotite. Thus, while MFP1&2 are directly related to the tectonic history of the Higher Himalaya, MFP3 is an inverse structural magnetic fabric, likely controlled by uni-axial/elongated single-domain magnetite grains.
This study analyzes the modal mineral composition and microstructural characteristics of rocks from the Balaju-Tadi Khola section to add some insightful information regarding the structural analysis of the region. This study investigates the geological distribution and metamorphic characteristics of the Kulikhani Formation (Bhimphedi Group) and the Tistung, Sopyang, and Chandragiri formations (Phulchauki Group) within the Kathmandu Complex. The northern region is composed of micaceous schist, laminated quartzite, and graphitic schist, while the central area is dominated by various types of gneiss, including augen gneiss, banded gneiss, and migmatite. The gneiss zone spans ~10-15 km in width and is associated with biotite-rich and tourmaline-bearing garnets. The study also identifies two main types of pegmatites: one rich in tourmaline and another in biotite. Petrographic analysis of 14 representative rock samples from the study area reveals a diverse range of metamorphic and sedimentary lithologies, highlighting a complex tectonometamorphic history. Graphitic schist and phyllite exhibit well-developed foliation with quartz, mica, and biotite, indicating moderate- to high-grade metamorphism. Quartzites and metasandstones show dynamic and static recrystallization features such as grain boundary migration and bulging, suggesting deformation at elevated temperatures. Gneissic samples display evidence of high-temperature metamorphism with foam-like textures and sutured grain boundaries. Garnet-bearing schists and calcsilicate rocks further confirm medium to high-grade metamorphic conditions. Limestones from the Sopyang Formation show recrystallization textures typical of low- to medium-grade metamorphism. The widespread presence of dynamic recrystallization across rock types suggests intense tectonic activity and prolonged deformation in the study region. The research shows the complex geological and metamorphic processes forming the Kathmandu Complex.
A plethora of literature regarding flood susceptibility is available but very few of them have considered local places distant from capital cities. Furthermore, the data driven models that use physically based models have limited applicability in data scarce regions. So, this research work attempts to estimate the flood susceptibility of data scarce local government using open source data in frequently inundated Dhangadhi sub metropolitan city in the far western southern plain of Nepal. The relevant factors responsible for flood namely, elevation, slope, aspect, precipitation, distance from river and LULC were identified. Using AHP method, the pairwise comparison matrix was prepared and weights for each factor and their sub class was estimated. Finally, the flood susceptibility map was prepared in open source QGIS environment dividing the region into five zones of very low, low, medium, high and very high susceptibility. The findings show that about 0.74% (1.93 sq. Km) area lies in the very low zone, 5.44% (14.24 sq. Km) in low, 41.13% (107.69 sq. Km) in medium, 51.22% (134.09 sq. Km) in high and 1.45% (3.84 sq. Km) in very high zone. The output of this research work could be helpful for leadership of local government, policy makers and academicians to strengthen flood risk management. It could be the baseline for future studies on flood susceptibility.
Geographically, the Himalaya range lies between Namche Barwa in eastern syntaxis and Naga Parbat in western syntaxis. Nepal Himalaya occupies nearly one-third of the 2500 km-long Himalaya range. Geographically, the Nepal Himalaya is differentiated into five stratigraphy, based on the four major tectonic structures, i.e. Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Main Central Thrust (MCT) and South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) from South to North. Western Nepal seismicity is controlled by the mid-crustal ramp in the hanging wall of the flat-ramp-flat geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), in contrast to the double-ramp geometry in eastern Nepal. This paper reports the seismic activity in western Nepal, the seismic network, and the earthquake catalogue from 2022 to 2024. Seismic data was acquired under the National Earthquake Monitoring and Research Centre (NEMRC). Western Nepal has a seismic gap of approximately 520 years. Recently, the region has experienced four significant earthquakes: the Doti earthquake (2022-11-08, ML 6.6), the Bajura earthquake (2023-01-24, ML 5.9), the Bajhang earthquake (2023-10-03, ML 6.3), and the Jajarkot earthquake (2023-11-03, ML 6.4). Over 4,800 seismic events were recorded during this period, with a magnitude of completeness (Mc) 2.3 and a b-value 0.75 ± 0.02.
The Sayali Gad (River) basin is an elongated crocodile-shaped basin having an area of 185 sq. km. The rugged topography of the basin makes it vulnerable to mass wasting and flooding. The relative relief is highest at the north-facing side of Sau Khola gaon and Silla village and lowest at the source area, Khaptad. The drainage density, drainage texture, and stream frequency value are higher in the source area and on the north-facing slope. The Sayali Gad is a fifth-order stream that flows from east to west and is a tributary of the Seti Nadi. The 24 km long segment of the fifth-order stream is taken for study, and the morpho-hydrologic parameters were studied within 2 km intervals. The stream types at T1 is B3a, at T2 is A3a+, T3 is B3a, T4 is E2b, T5 is C3b, T6 is C2b, at T7 is B4, at T8 is C4c, T9 is E4b, T10 is C4 and T11 is also C4. The transect T2 is entrenched, T1, T3 and T7 are moderately entrenched and the transect T4, T5, T6, T8, T9, T10, T11 is slightly entrenched. The river is vertically unstable at the upstream portion and laterally unstable at the downstream.
The present study involves the correlation of field electrical resistivity with strength properties of soil along Sunwal to Lamahi section of New Butwal 400kv transmission line alignment. Geologically the area is located in Quaternary deposit of Terai plain and Siwalik. The objective of this study is to find out correlation and empirical relationships between field electrical resistivity with strength properties of soil such as Cohesion (c), Internal Angle of Friction (ø), Moisture Content (w), Bulk Density (d) and Fine Content (fc). To obtain the results, undisturbed samples from thirty six number of test pits up to 3.0m depth and five number of boreholes up to 10.0m depth were extracted by using split-spoon sampler. These samples were tested in the laboratory of Geological Investigation Department and soil strength parameters were calculated. The field resistivity values were computed by using Wenner Alpha arrangement. The resistivity values up to 10.0 m depth for boreholes and up to 3.0m depth of test pits were taken for the analysis. The results obtained were compared and correlated with soil strength properties obtained from boreholes and test pits. Results from both the laboratory tests and field electrical resistivity tests indicate that there is consistent in the correlation between the resistivity and soil strength properties. The regression plots of the electrical resistivity (ρ) values against each of the determined strength parameters shows an empirical relationship ø = 2.2167ln (ρ) + 19.671, c = 25.143e-0.005ρ, w = 131.52 ρ -0.499, d = 0.0009ρ + 1.1697 and fc = 83.256e-0.004ρ with Angle of Internal Friction, Cohesion, Moisture Content, Bulk Density and Fine Content respectively.
Lumbini Province, located in western Nepal, is known for its diverse geography, ranging from the low land Tera to the rugged hills of the Chure and Mahabharat ranges. The Main Boundary Thrust passes through the region, which makes the geology more complicated due to tectonic movements. This study aims to analyze the geospatial distribution of Landslides in Lumbini province as well as the causes and triggering factors in different areas in the province. First, a preliminary literature review is done on Landslides and its possible triggering factors. The data for this project are retrieved from the Bipad Portal (2012-2024), rainfall records from DHM, seismic and geological maps from the Department of Mines and Geology, and road infrastructure details from the Department of Roads. The data is analyzed by statistical methods to understand the triggering factors (rainfall, tectonic activity, toe-cutting, and road construction) and how these factors influence landslides over the years from 2012-2024. The study shows that the area most affected by landslides are Rolpa and Eastern Bulum, which are located in the region influenced by the tectonic activity along the MBT. The meteorological station in Baldyanggadi, Palpa, also showed a significant increase in rainfall from 90.4mm to 252.0mm on September 28, 2024, which resulted in several landslides. The weak Geology of Chure helps in triggering Landslides as major cities are located in and around Chure in this province with a larger population density, rather a small size of the landslide could be huge in terms of inventory value. Important infrastructures and historical and ecological complex ecosystems in this region can be harmed by landslides in the future. Therefore, the findings suggest that small technical and financial steps in the field can reduce the risk of Landslides in the Lumbini province by a high percentage.
In mountainous areas, landslides brought on by earthquakes are a major threat to infrastructure, human life, and sustainable development. Thousands of landslides were caused by the 2015 Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal, underscoring the critical need for trustworthy techniques to pinpoint regions most susceptible to seismically induced slope failures. In the Sindhupalchowk District, one of the areas most severely impacted by earthquakes, this study suggests a boosting-based framework for mapping landslide susceptibility using slope units. Twelve geophysical covariates representing terrain, hydrological, geological, and seismic conditions were integrated with a thorough landslide inventory comprising 7,159 earthquake-induced landslides. In contrast to traditional grid-based methods, slope units were employed as mapping units to more accurately depict geomorphological processes. The boosting model was trained using 70% of the dataset and validated with the remaining 30%. The receiver operating characteristic curve was one of several statistical metrics used to assess the model's performance. With an area under the curve value of 0.83, the results demonstrate strong predictive capability and good discrimination between slope units that are prone to landslides and those that are stable. High-risk areas are concentrated along steep slopes, deeply carved valleys, and regions that experience severe ground shaking, according to the resulting susceptibility map. Overall, in seismically active mountainous areas, the suggested framework offers a reliable and comprehensible method for evaluating landslide susceptibility to earthquakes and offers insightful information to support hazard mitigation, land-use planning, and disaster risk reduction.
In April 2024, a study was conducted to assess the distribution of iron in the several types of groundwater resources in the Dhangadhi area. A total of 50 samples were collected, including 29 from shallow sources and 21 from deep sources. Iron was detected in 24 shallow and 8 deep sources. In shallow sources, iron concentrations ranged from 0.17 to 9.68 mg/l, with a mean of 2.46 mg/l and a standard deviation of 2.14 mg/l, while in deep sources, concentrations ranged from 0.17 to 7.14 mg/l, with a mean of 1.30 mg/l and a standard deviation of 2.24 mg/l. Except for samples SS5, SS7, DS10, and DS15 all other samples exceeded the permissible iron limit of 0.3 mg/l set by NDWQS 2022. The Water Quality Index (WQI), without considering iron, ranged from 2.10 to 122.22, classifying groundwater as 52% excellent, 34% good, 6% very poor, and 8% unsuitable for drinking. WQI ranged from 1.985 to 446.70, when iron was included, categorizing groundwater as 38% excellent, 20% good, 6% poor, 6% very poor, and 30% unsuitable for drinking, highlighting iron as the primary factor degrading water quality. The highest concentration was found in sample SS2 in the northern part of the area, with industrial and agricultural activities contributing to elevated levels. The reliance on shallow sources with high iron concentrations has led to public health issues, including liver and kidney diseases. Effective management and stringent quality control measures are essential to protect this critical water resource.
The knowledge of fragmentation with explosives has allowed a critical look at the theoretical principles and rules of Langefors. The blasting operations at the Ekona quarry are usually accompanied by the production of oversized blocks, which require secondary operations that increase the cost of production. Therefore, a methodology related to the design of a blast plan allowing good fragmentation of the massif is needed. Petrographic observations made it possible to identify and generally describe the massif, which is a prismatic basalt. Structurally, the families of major fracture directions are grouped into two main types, namely, family A: N0-N30, and family B: N30-N60. The analysis of the results obtained for a given step made it possible to detect the influence of several parameters (e.g., the mesh size and inclination of the holes) on the fragmentation results. For a good distribution of the explosive charges and for a regular drilling mesh of 3 × 2.5 m2 over a depth of 10 m, we obtain better results than those of the quarry with a gain in specific consumption of explosives of 35%. As a result, the adopted Langefors optimization method has shown that the cost of explosives can reach approximately 30% for 10 m holes and 41% for 12 m holes.
The Tertiary Group in the Shivnath-Salena area is characterized by brown quartzite with black carbonaceous shale, siltstone, purple and grey shale, and green sandstone with a lenticular bed of grey limestone containing foraminifera. The present palaeontological study, in the type locality, contributes to the identification and understanding of the formation. Five species from the two genera of Nummulites and Assilina are identified from the Chachura Formation in Chachura Section, Far West Nepal. The larger foraminiferal species, Nummulites mamillatus, Nummulites globulus, Nummulites atacicus, Assilina granulate, and Assilina sp., have been identified. These faunal and facies assemblages indicate that the Chachura Formation was deposited in the shallow-shelf open marine environment in an Early–Middle Eocene age.
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a prominent and widely used remote sensing method used for accurate surface deformation across large areas. We applied this technique to study the subsidence and upliftment of the ground surface in Kathmandu Valley in the years between 2019 and 2023 AD. C-band Sentinel-1A images from 2019 to 2023 were employed in this study to investigate the status of ground deformation. This study highlights ground upliftment in major parts of the valley in the year 2022 and 2023 whereas the valley experienced major subsidence during the year 2020 to 2022. These results in agreement with prior studies of tectonic and anthropogenic influences suggest that ongoing tectonic compression combined with intensive groundwater withdrawal have driven the observed patterns. Because the valley lies deep, soft sedimentary fill even moderate ground motions pose hazards to infrastructure. We conclude that Kathmandu’s ground is actively deforming and recommend enhanced water resource management and land use planning to mitigate future subsidence risk. In this study we also found that the major subsidence was found in the central north region and southeastern part of the valley. But in the years between 2022 and 2023 major uplifting was found in the northern part of the valley. In general, the study shows major deformation over a four-year time interval which may have occurred due to the seismic movement or groundwater depletion.
Springs serve as lifelines for rural communities in the Himalayan region, providing essential domestic water supplies and irrigation purposes. The depletion of streams and spring sources poses a significant environmental menace, threatening water access for these communities. To ensure sustainable access to groundwater for local communities, a thorough assessment of Himalayan hydrogeology is essential. A map of groundwater potential has been prepared using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), employing the Conventional Frequency Ratio (FR) and Modified Frequency Ratio (MFR) methods and evaluated the predictive performance of these in the Shivapuri Rural Municipality, Central Nepal. The MFR method excels in classifying groundwater potential areas with an AUC of 0.80, indicating an 80% success rate, compared to the FR method's AUC of 0.65 (65% success). Both methods share an AUC of 0.60 for the prediction rate curve, implying similar performance in outlining potential spring zones. However, the MFR method better distinguishes between high and low potential zones. This study provides critical information that can be used to support decision-making processes for the effective management and utilization of groundwater resources in the region.
This study analyzes the mineral paragenesis and microstructural characteristics of rocks from the Tamghas-Arkhabang section to delineate a thrust boundary and create a detailed metamorphic zonation map. A 1:25,000 scale geological map was prepared, and representative rock samples from each stratigraphic unit were systematically collected for petrographic analysis. Fourteen thin sections were examined to understand the deformation and metamorphism in the region. Field observations such as fault breccias, fault gouge, lineation, and slickensides, along with petrographic evidence of inverted and dynamic metamorphism, cataclastic deformation, and ribbon quartz, suggest the presence of a thrust equivalent to the Mahabharat Thrust (MT), a significant tectonic feature in the study area. Microstructural indicators like undulose extinction, grain boundary migration, recrystallisation, and deformation lamellae in quartz further confirm this thrust's existence. Two distinct carbonate successions were identified: the southern unit correlates with the Lesser Himalayan sequence, while the northern, more metamorphosed carbonate unit is associated with the Bhimphedi Group, part of the Jajarkot Thrust Sheet. Stratigraphic continuity is disrupted in some sections, where quartzite and schist replace the basal carbonate strata, likely due to thrusting. The thrust's propagation has impacted both footwall and hanging wall rocks, evidenced by features such as rotated garnets with spiral inclusions. Three metamorphic zones—chlorite, biotite, and garnet isograd—indicate progressive metamorphism linked to thrust tectonics, revealing an inverted metamorphic sequence in the region.
Landslides are a major natural disaster in Nepal, particularly during the monsoon season. This study focuses on the Dutti Landslide in Kavrepalanchok District, Bagmati Province, which has been active for over 80 years, damaging farmland, displacing communities, and depositing sediment into rivers. The objective is to monitor the Dutti Landslide’s movement using DGPS technology to analyze its slip rate and direction while examining the correlation between rainfall patterns and landslide dynamics, specifically how seasonal precipitation affects the landslide’s behavior. Thirteen GPS monitoring stations were installed along the landslide’s crown and surrounding areas to record topographic movement from December 2021 to December 2022 using Differential GPS (DGPS) technology. Findings show a peak slip rate of 14.7 cm in August, correlating with high rainfall, suggesting that ground saturation plays a significant role in landslide acceleration. Additionally, agricultural practices, such as wet farming, contribute to the upward migration of the landslide crown. This study highlights the importance of DGPS in understanding landslide dynamics, revealing how seasonal rainfall and human activities intensify landslide movement. Results emphasize the need for ongoing monitoring and targeted risk mitigation strategies to address the challenges posed by landslide activity in this region.
