The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of Trichoderma asperellum multiplied in a culture medium with homoeopathic preparations (HP) for control of the pathogen Monilinia fructicola in vitro and in harvested peach fruit (Prunus persica). T. asperellum was multiplied in potato-dextrose-agar medium with HP Digitalis purpurea, Nux vomica, or Pulsatilla nigricans at 30CH (0.5% of medium). In vitro confrontation bioassays were conducted, using a randomised design with six treatments and seven replicates, by placing medium discs (0.7 cm) with mycelium of M. fructicola and T. asperellum in Petri dishes in accordance with the treatments. Investigations were extended with pre-application of T. asperellum on harvested peach fruits (cv. Fasc & iacute;nio) with artificial damage and inoculated with M. fructicola, and with post-application of T. asperellum on peach fruit (cv. Kampai), using a randomised block design with eight treatments and seven replications. In the in vitro assays, radial growth of the colony was evaluated, and mycelial growth velocity index (MGVI) and % growth inhibition of the phytopathogen colony were calculated. On the peach fruit, lesion diameter was evaluated and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) of the brown rot disease was calculated. T. asperellum cultured with Pulsatilla nigricans 30CH reduced MGVI of the pathogen in vitro, and in the pre-application experiment, T. asperellum cultured in association with HP reduced the severity of the disease in the Fasc & iacute;nio fruit. It was concluded that the homoeopathic preparations enhanced the performance of T. asperellum with potential to suppress M. fructicola on peaches.
Transition from conventional to no-till vegetable production systems (NTVPS) has been shown to improve soil quality, but the timeline for crop yield responses remains uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of NTVPS implementation on broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) and maize (Zea mays) production and soil properties using six cover crop treatments: monocultured black oats (Avena strigosa Schreb), four winter cover crop mixtures and a bare soil control. In a two-year field experiment, dry matter production, nitrogen accumulation, broccoli and maize yields, and soil chemical, physical and biological parameters were measured. The cover crop mixtures significantly increased subsurface organic matter in year two, and principal component analysis showed that the Avena strigosa, Secale cereale and Vicia sativa mix was associated with organic matter content, potassium levels, carbon mineralisation and soil density, whilst the Secale cereale, Pisum sativum and Brassica rapa mix was associated with phosphorus availability and microbial respiration rates, and monocultured oats favoured soil physical attributes. In the initial 2 years of the NTVPS, chemical attributes including P, K, Ca and base saturation showed consecutive increases. The maize achieved dual agronomic-economic benefits (maize + pearl millet dry matter: 3.68 t ha-1; maize ear yield: 8.7 t ha-1). In the early stages of NTVPS, the cover crops drove improvements in soil quality characteristics, and whilst broccoli yields were lower in the cover crop treatments, the production of the maize was unaffected. Therefore, long-term monitoring is essential to determine if, and when, crop productivity gains materialise.
This study documented the diversity, nutritional composition, community-based prioritisation, and agroecological adaptation of wild edible vegetable species (WEVs) in Aceh, Indonesia, to identify candidate taxa for targeted integration into low-input farming systems consistent with the principles of biological husbandry. Field surveys in three regencies employed stratified purposive sampling and participatory interviews with 120 respondents to evaluate species against seven selection criteria, after which the ten highest-ranked taxa were analysed for proximate and mineral composition and assessed for tolerance to drought, flooding and shade. A total of 31 WEVs were recorded across lowland and riparian habitats, with Diplazium esculentum (32.8), Ipomoea aquatica (31.9), Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (31.3) and Centella asiatica (31.3) emerging as top priorities. Protein content ranged from 2.78% to 3.82% FW, calcium from 80 to 340 mg 100 g(-1) DW and iron from 270 to 437 mg kg(-1) DW, while potassium was the most abundant macro-mineral (4800-6200 mg 100 g(-1) DW), with the highest concentrations in Psophocarpus tetragonolobus and Ipomoea aquatica. Cluster analysis grouped species into dryland gardens, wetland margins and shaded agroforestry systems. These underutilised vegetables may contribute to diversified diets, climate-resilient production and multifunctional landscapes when integrated into low-input farming systems, subject to validation through on-farm trials. The findings aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2, 13 and 15, highlighting ecologically grounded pathways to strengthen biological agriculture in tropical smallholder contexts.
Organic agriculture promotes soil health through the use of cover crops, biological diversity, and plant- and animal-based amendments. Two concurrent field experiments examined effects of crop diversification on soil nutrients and crop yields. The study spanned two years and encompassed seven cropping systems with different cover crops and production intensities. Each system incorporated three crops annually: a summer cover crop followed by two cash crops, with cash crop rotations reversed during autumn and spring seasons. The least diverse system had no cover crop followed by monocultured vegetables. The more diverse systems included cover crop monocultures of grass-pearl millet (PM), sorghum sudangrass (SS), or legumes, sunn hemp (SH) and velvetbean (VB), followed by monocultured vegetables. In the most diverse systems cover crop bicultures of PM and SH (PMSH) and SS and VB (SSVB) were followed by vegetables intercropped with either living mulch or cash crop. Soil nutrient concentrations varied between cropping systems. P and Ca concentrations increased, while K decreased, over the experimental period. Soil Fe decreased over time in the grass and legume systems. PM and PMSH produced the largest cover crop biomass, with C:N ratios ranging from 23-43. Broccoli yields were unaffected by cover crop diversity. Squash yields were higher in grass systems when grown in the first year, while bell pepper yields were greater in biculture systems when grown in the second year. Sweet corn yields were highest in grass and legume systems. Cover crop-based systems require additional time and complementary strategies to enhance soil fertility and crop yields.
Yellow wilt is a soil-borne disease affecting lamb's lettuce (Valerianella locusta L.), particularly in low-input and organic systems with limited chemical control options. Organic amendments have been widely proposed to support crop performance and suppress soil-borne diseases, yet their effects often vary with soil conditions, management, and disease pressure. This study evaluated effects of biochar, vermicompost, compost extract, and their combinations in a soil-based greenhouse trial conducted in the same naturally infested soil in 2 consecutive years. Disease incidence and disease severity, dry matter content, and marketable yield were assessed. In the first year, disease pressure was low and treatment effects were limited. In the second year, disease pressure was higher and differences between treatments emerged, particularly for disease incidence and dry matter content, while disease severity and marketable yield showed less pronounced separation between treatments. Treatments with vermicompost were associated with more favourable crop performance patterns. Overall, responses to the amendments differed between the years. Under higher disease pressure, differences in disease metrics were limited, and application of vermicompost was associated with improved plant performance.
Although growing in popularity in developed countries, organic kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) production still has several operational challenges, including limited availability of organically approved growth regulators, nutrient inputs and insecticides. In this study, 11 biostimulant treatments were tested, including T1: Water spray (control), T2: 5% KA sap (Kappaphycus alvarezii), T3: 10% KA sap, T4: 5% GE sap (Gracilaria edulis), T5: 10% GE sap, T6: 5% AN sap (Ascophyllum nodosum), T7: 10% AN sap, T8: 5% Vermiwash, T9: 10% Vermiwash, T10: 5% Humic acid and T11: 10% Humic acid. The biostimulants were used as root zone soil applications four times per year: 1) before flower bud opening, 2) at 1 month after fruit set, 3) at 3 months after fruit set, and finally 4) at 5 months after fruit set. In terms of growth attributes of the kiwifruit cultivars Allison and Hayward, treatment T2: 5% KA sap showed the best results for sprouting percentage and yield per vine, while treatment T8: 5% Vermiwash exhibited the best results for fruitful bud percentage, fruit shoot-1 and grade-A fruit percentage. The majority of the quality traits were found to be significantly higher with the application of treatment T2: 5% KA sap, compared with the control. DPPH and ABTS assays showed maximum values with T8: 5% Vermiwash and T10: 5% Humic acid, respectively. It was concluded that the application of biostimulants like seaweed extracts, vermiwash and humic acids can be used to increase the quality, yield and production economics of organic kiwifruit production.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotations are dominant food production systems in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India. However, indiscriminate use of inputs poses a threat to the long-term sustainability of these systems. Organic agriculture offers a viable alternative for enhancing productivity while conserving resources. Hence, a field experiment (2021 and 2022) investigated the sixteen-year impact of different organic nutrient management regimes on plant growth, N-accumulation, yields, and economic returns of organic basmati rice production. The strip plot design comprised two rice-based cropping systems: basmati rice-wheat-green gram (CS1) and basmati rice-wheat-sesbania (CS2) and seven organic nutrient management practices: T1, no manure application; T2, farmyard manure (FYM); T3, vermicompost (VC); T4, FYM+crop residue (CR); T5, VC+CR; T6, FYM+CR+ biofertilisers (BF); and T7, VC+CR+BF. Results showed significant effects of both the cropping systems and the nutrient practices. CS2 recorded higher plant growth, N-accumulation, grain yield, and economic return than CS1. Integrated use of organic sources improved dry matter production by 22-25% over sole applications. N-accumulation peaked in T6 at 25 DAT and T7 at 55 DAT, with increases of 20.8% and 46.7%, respectively, relative to T1. Grain and straw yields increased by 74-80% and 46-50% in T6 and T7 compared to T1. Gross returns were also 68-74% higher with integrated treatments. The cropping system with sesbania green manure combined with integrated organic amendments (T6 and T7) was shown to be the most effective and sustainable long-term approach for producing higher yields and ensuring financial security of the rice-wheat agro-ecosystem.
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is an annual plant with diminutive seed size and low germination and vigour, often leading to weak establishment in the field. Effects of treating cumin seeds with different bioagents, including Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, Paenebacillus polymyxa, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus paramycoides and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and soaking agents (chitosan, carrageenan, aloe vera gel compost and soil extract) on germination, root/shoot length and germination indices of cumin were investigated in the laboratory and field. In the field experiment, treatments with different combinations of bioagents and soaking agents enhanced seed germination and improved plant physiological traits (chlorophyll, root/shoot length), yield and yield attributes compared with the non-bioprimed control. Treatment with chitosan in combination with Bacillus paramycoides and Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed the greatest positive effects, though for most parameters the effects of this treatment were statistically similar to the other biopriming combinations. The biopriming treatments also increased nutrient content, soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, urease, acid and alkaline phosphatase), soil nutrient status and bacterial populations. In the laboratory, the combination of the first and second main components explained 83.4% of the overall variance the germination indices. In the field experiment, the first principal component alone accounted for 81.8% and 96.7% of the total variation observed in yield parameters and seed nutrient content, and post-harvest soil properties, respectively. These findings indicated that biopriming cumin seeds with microbial consortia and soaking agents enhanced seed germination, plant growth, soil health and yield of cumin, and may serve as a sustainable approach for improving cumin cultivation.
The most widespread plant health management approaches are pathogen-focused and rely on chemical inputs. Conversely, agroecology with salutogenic approaches, centred on biodiversity-based plant health, are gaining attention. Understanding how agrobiodiversity structure influence plant health is crucial for advancing these alternative strategies. This study was conducted in cocoa-based agroforestry systems in C & ocirc;te d'Ivoire, characterised by an agrobiodiversity gradient in species diversity and spatial distribution. These systems are managed by farmers using diverse farming practices based on their knowledge and experience influenced by the socioeconomic environment. The hypothesis was that agrobiodiversity associated with the cocoa trees supports their health in the plots through greater diversity. Consequently, cocoa trees were expected to be healthier under organic farming systems than conventional farming, aligned with biodiversity-based management practices. This was tested by comparing management practices and agrobiodiversity in both organic and conventional farming systems in a network of 84 cocoa plots. Statistical tests on a subset of 37 plots assessed the relationship between agrobiodiversity and farming practices. The study revealed that farming practices and annual intervention frequency varied little between the organic and conventional farming situations. Moreover, organic farmers relied on substitution strategy to manage cocoa tree health, by replacing synthetic inputs with inputs certified for organic farming. The results, obtained with multivariate statistical and clustering methods, indicated that species richness was significantly related to cocoa health, particularly in organic farming systems. This finding raised questions about how farming practices influence biodiversity-health interactions and called for further research to deepen the understanding of these dynamics.
The wine industry is an important socio-economic agricultural sector at an international scale, but the cultivation of grape vine (Vitis vinifera) also involves intensive use of pesticides. Copper sulphate in Bordeaux mixture, used as a fungicide, affects various soil organisms that are essential for proper functioning of agroecosystems. The development of alternative practices to replace copper sulphate is of great importance. Trichoderma asperellum can produce bioactive compounds with antifungal properties. This study compared the effects of: (i) copper sulphate, (ii) a biocontrol cocktail from T. asperellum and (iii) their combination, at different doses, on the biological and physicochemical properties of a vineyard soil in mesocosms. Microbial (respiration, biomass and catabolic diversities of bacterial and fungal communities) and earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (biomass, abundance and reproduction) properties were monitored after a 30-day incubation period. The results revealed that the biocontrol cocktail did not show any deleterious effects and even had beneficial effects: at certain doses, the biocontrol cocktail promoted microbial respiration and earthworm weight gain. On the other hand, the harmful impact of copper sulphate was confirmed on microbial biomass, bacterial catabolic activity, together with a change in the microbial catabolic profiles. Furthermore, negative effects were observed from copper sulphate on the reproduction of the earthworms in terms of number of individuals, hatched cocoons and time of cocoon hatching.
Recent innovations in food quality assessment include measuring food-induced emotions (FIE) and using image-forming methods (IFM), such as copper chloride crystallisation and capillary dynamolysis. FIE analyses the emotional and physical impact of food, while IFM captures the sample matrix to assess its physiological state. These methods have not yet been tested for honey. This study examined whether the use of these methods provides additional insights into honey quality. This study compared honey from organic beekeeping with queen excluder (QE) and without a queen excluder (NQE), sampled from seven beekeepers in Germany over 2 years. No significant differences were found in diastase activity or hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content. In 1 year, a slight increase in moisture was observed in honey from hives with a queen excluder. Sensory analysis revealed no differences, but FIE showed significant effects, particularly in emotional characteristics. IFM accurately identified differences between treatments in both 2018 and 2019. Food induced emotions and image-forming methods for assessing food quality generated additional information about honey quality in comparison with standard chemical and sensory analysis. The use of queen excluders can be perceived as a beekeeping management practice that influence honey properties.
Intensive use of chemical fertilisers and cereal-cereal cropping systems threatens the long-term sustainability of crop production by leading to decline in crop productivity. To address this issue, a field study was undertaken within a long-term experiment with three production system treatments (organic (OPS), integrated (IPS) and conventional (CPS)) and four cropping system treatments (rice-vegetable pea + coriander (R-Vp + C), rice-chickpea + coriander (R-Cp + C), rice-potato (R-P) and rice-wheat (R-W)), using a split plot design. The results indicated that the organic production system significantly increased various growth and yield attributes and the rice grain yield (24.7%) compared with the conventional production system. The R-Cp + C cropping system also improved growth and yield attributes and produced 13.3% higher grain yield compared with the R-W cropping system. Rice grown in the organic system had significantly higher grain micro-nutrients concentrations, with increases of 32.5%, 18.1%, 23.1% and 13.7% for Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu, respectively, compared with the conventional counterpart. The combination of OPS and R-Cp + C cropping system improved grain yield, net return, energy efficiency, and eco-efficiency by 39.1%, 105.3%, 92.3% and 183.8%, respectively, over the R-W system in CPS. Hence, OPS with R-Cp + C cropping system was recommended as an energy-efficient strategy for sustaining rice yields and enhancing profitability.
Home gardens are small agroforestry systems practised on homestead premises to produce edible goods for home use. Besides providing food, home gardens offer several ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat functions, and aesthetic value. Given their ecological and economic importance, a study was conducted to document the structure, composition, and services of home gardens in the Imphal-West district of Manipur, India. For this research, 200 households were surveyed using a mixed-method approach. The findings showed that 60% of households engaged in home gardening, while 40% did not, due to a lack of space or time. Despite their small size, averaging 0.069 ha, the home gardens provided many services. An average-sized home garden produced economic yields worth INR 18,700 annually and also served as a space for adults and children to connect with nature. Ecologically, home gardens are vital habitats for conserving genetic resources and contributing to carbon sequestration, with this study showing that a 0.1 ha home garden stored 10.6 t carbon in the trees and soil. These benefits strongly supported the preservation of existing home gardens and encouragement for their expansion.
Integrated use of organic amendments can synchronise the nutrient supply as per the demand of the crops. A 4-year field study (2019-22) at Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Bihar, India, evaluated the effects of various combinations of organic amendments versus chemical fertilisers on forage yield, profitability, energy use and soil fertility in a rice bean (Vigna umbellata)-oats (Avena sativa L.) cropping system. Twelve treatments providing the recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through different ratios of organic amendments, including farmyard manure (RDNFYM), vermicompost (RDNVC), compost (RDNC), poultry manure (RDNPM) and 100% RDN through chemical fertilisers (RDNCF), were tested. The combined application of 50% RDNFYM plus 50% RDNVC enhanced green forage (13.6%), dry matter (29.1%) and crude protein yield (32.7%) compared to chemical fertilisers (RDNCF). While RDNCF showed higher net returns and B:C ratio, the application of 50% RDNFYM plus 50% RDNVC maximised energy efficiency, productivity and eco-efficiency. This treatment also improved soil organic carbon (25.5%), available N (11.7%), P (40.1%) and K (10.3%) after 4 years. The study recommended using 50% RDN as FYM +50% RDN as VC for sustaining forage yield and enhancing soil fertility, and energy efficiency in the middle Indo-Gangetic plains of India and similar agro-ecologies.
This study, conducted in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, provided valuable insight into the multifaceted role of home gardens in supporting livelihoods of local communities. The biodiversity and economic value of home gardens was assessed through a survey of 284 households across three districts. The findings revealed that the home gardens were not only rich in species diversity, but they also served as a crucial source of various food items, contributing to household food and nutrition security. Households relied on a substantial part of their requirements of tender coconuts, vegetables, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants and oilseeds from their home gardens, underscoring the importance of the gardens. Furthermore, the study found a positive association between species diversity and economic productivity of the home gardens, suggesting that increased species diversity led to greater financial benefits for households. This study emphasised the need for sustainable management practices to protect and maintain the home gardens as a valuable resource.
The use of green manures is an important management strategy affecting crop production by maintaining and improving soil health. In this study, faba beans (Vicia faba L. var. minor) grown as a green manure preceding peppers (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Baklouti) in an organic farming system was investigated for three consecutive cropping years, evaluating the effects on soil chemical and biological properties and pepper yields. Soil organic carbon and organic matter levels were higher following the green manuring. Total nitrogen, available phosphorus and potassium concentrations measured in V. faba amended soil were higher than in the unamended control soil. The use of V. faba as a green manure significantly enhanced beta-glucosidase activity in the third cropping year, alkaline phosphatase activity in the second and third year and urease activity in all three cropping years. The total culturable bacteria, actinomycetes and Aspergillus spp. populations in the soil were significantly increased following the green manuring. The tested green manure induced significant increments in most growth parameters and in the yield of the pepper. Positive correlations were noted between growth and yield parameters and most soil properties. This study demonstrated that green manuring with V. faba var. minor preceding a main crop like pepper can be an effective strategy for improving soil health and ensuring sustainable pepper cropping in organic farming systems.
Application of biostimulants and organic nutrient sources derived from natural tree leaf extracts holds potential for enhancing crop productivity. Field experiments were conducted during October-March 2020-21 and 2021-22 in a Typic Fluvaquent in West Bengal, India, to assess effects of moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaf extract (MLE) and neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract (NLE) on the growth, yield, and economic return of eggplants (Solanum melongena L). Six foliar spray treatments were applied: T0 (control with distilled water), T1 (weekly MLE), T2 (weekly NLE), T3 (weekly MLE and NLE), T4 (MLE and NLE spray at 2-week intervals), and T5 (MLE and NLE at 3-week intervals), in a randomised block design with five replications. The findings revealed that the weekly MLE and NLE (T3) spray exhibited the best results in terms of plant height (86.6 cm), number of branches (19.2), leaves (33.5), leaf size (29.4 cm), and thickness (0.62 cm), as well as the maximum number of flowers (26.5) and fruits (42.9), fruit length (20.9 cm), diameter (4.7 cm), and weight (122.5 g), and overall yield (23.36 t ha-1). The same treatment also delivered superior nutritional quality and the lowest incidence of shoot and fruit borer infestation (26.2%), alongside the highest benefit-cost ratio (2.4). Biochemical attributes, including chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, polyphenols, vitamin C, protein, and soluble sugar concentrations, were also at peak for T3. Thus, foliar spray combining MLE and NLE offered an effective source of biostimulants and nutrients in organic production to boost eggplant growth, productivity, nutritional value, and profitability.
The study evaluated effects of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment on storage quality and chilling injury (CI) of organic Hicaznar pomegranates (Punica granatum L.). Fruits were treated with two concentrations of synthetic MeJA (1 and 5 mM) after harvest and were then stored at 4 degrees C for 120 days. Fruits, sampled every month, were held at room temperature for an additional 2 days following cold storage to allow full expression of CI. Untreated pomegranates (control) had CI symptoms of pitting and browning, with increased severity as the storage period increased. In parallel, electrolyte leakage (EL) increased in the control. CI symptoms and EL values were substantially reduced with MeJA treatments, with no significant difference between concentrations. Additionally, MeJA treatment increased concentrations of total phenolics and anthocyanins relative to the control. Concentrations of fructose, glucose, vitamin C, and titratable acidity decreased in the control, but both MeJA treatments reduced these losses. Despite reductions in the losses of individual sugars, there was no effect of MeJA on soluble solids. Postharvest MeJA treatment prevented darkening of the husk during storage. Collectively, the data suggested that MeJA treatment, at concentrations of 1 mM, or more, may potentially provide a natural postharvest technology to improve the retention of health-promoting compounds, slow aspects of senescence, and suppress CI for organic pomegranates. To support the use of MeJA in organic pomegranate production systems, future research should evaluate the effectiveness of naturally derived sources, which would help ensure compliance with organic standards and sustainability of postharvest quality maintenance practices.
This study investigated the use of coated fertilisers for slow-release nutrient delivery to address environmental concerns and high costs associated with the use of traditional fertilisers. Three types of coating of pelletised goat manure were investigated: coating with Bacillus subtilis and sodium alginate, coating with sodium alginate on its own and no coating. Nutrient concentrations in soil fertilised with the treatments, with and without plants (maize and sugarcane), were measured, as well as plant height, length, and leaf width. N, P and K release rates were calculated for all treatments. The results showed that in soil without plants the uncoated fertiliser released nutrients at higher rates compared to the Bacillus subtilis coated fertilisers. The growth rates of sugarcane plants with Bacillus subtilis coating, sodium alginate coating, and no coating were 0.270 cm day-1, 0.272 cm day-1, and 0.323 cm day-1, respectively. The specific growth rate for the height of the maize plants was also highest with the un-coated fertiliser at 0.044 cm day-1. The coated fertilisers, especially the Bacillus subtilis coating, allowed for slow and prolonged nutrient distribution, extending the availability. In conclusion, integrating sodium alginate with Bacillus subtilis in the coating process of fertilisers derived from goat manure proved effective for slow-release nutrient delivery. The study provided insight on the impact of coated fertilisers on the growth of maize and sugarcane plants. This innovative approach may help to mitigate environmental concern, optimise nutrient delivery, and ensure sustainable crop growth, potentially contributing to food security and economic benefits.
Rice (Oryza sativa)-duck (Anas platyrhynchos) integrated systems (RDIS) are popular in South Asia. RDIS can improve rice yields, increase nutrients in the soil and rice, whilst providing additional duck production. A two-year investigation was conducted in Coimbatore, India, to gather information on RDIS. The study involved combinations of three stocking densities of ducks (200, 300, and 400 ha-1) and three release times of the ducks (10, 20, and 30 days after transplanting the rice (DAT)), resulting in nine treatments, which were compared with a control (rice alone) in an organic production system. The results indicated that RDIS, in general, and specifically the RDIS releasing 400 ducks ha-1 from 10 DAT (T7), led to the highest additions of duck manure and nutrients to the soil and to significantly higher nutrient uptake by the rice and to the soil organic carbon content, compared to all other RDIS treatments. T7 also resulted in the highest concentrations of available nutrients in the soil after harvest and of rice grain yields (28% and 25% increase in rice yield compared with control), though for these parameters the results were statistically similar to that in some other RDIS treatments. T7 provided the highest duck production yields, with 373.2 kg ha-1 and 324.2 kg ha-1 in the first and second year, respectively. It was concluded that RDIS, especially the release of 400 ducks ha-1 from 10 DAT, improved soil and plant nutrient concentrations, thereby enhancing rice yields and duck production in the organic farming system in India.
