This paper investigates the effects of applying multiple different sequences of transformations that aim to Gaussianise the distribution of deep-neural-network embeddings (DNN embeddings) before those DNN embeddings are used to calculate likelihood ratios using a model that assumes Gaussian distributions (Probabilistic Linear Discriminant Analysis, PLDA). The transformations were originally developed for non-forensic applications of automatic speaker recognition. This paper investigates the effects of applying the transformations under three different sets of forensically realistic conditions. The paper assesses the effects of the transformations with respect to theoretical properties of high-dimensional Gaussian distributions, and with respect to their impact on the performance of a forensic-voice-comparison system. Considering both the distribution and the performance criteria, the sequence of transformations that appeared to give the best results was: linear discriminant functions + centring + whitening + radial Gaussianisation. The results are potentially generalisable and not just specific to forensic voice comparison, i.e., they are also potentially applicable to use of DNN embedding to calculate likelihood ratios in other branches of forensic science such as forensic comparison of facial images.
Accurate photographic documentation is of central importance in forensic practice, as depicting findings exactly as they appear is essential to ensure their use as evidence and to support legal certainty. In routine work, forensic photography is often performed under stressful conditions in which the documenting person must also identify findings, interpret them, and communicate them to investigators. These competing tasks can quickly divert attention away from careful photographic documentation, which may reduce image quality and limit their value for interpretation or legal use. This study examined whether targeted training can significantly improve the quality of forensic photography. 46 third year medical students without prior photographic experience were recruited and completed three photographic tasks on a training dummy: an overview image, a portrait image, and a detailed documentation of a wound. Two groups were formed and both received written instructions based on forensic photography guidelines, whereas only one group received additional training through a narrated presentation designed to highlight correct techniques and common errors (publicly available on GitHub). For each task, several quality criteria were assessed which could either be met or not. The results showed significant differences between the groups across several quality criteria, namely perspective, focal point and image composition for the overview image, perspective, focal point, format and focal length for the portrait image and focal length for the wound image with effect sizes between 0.36 (medium) and 0.62 (large). Furthermore, statistically significant differences were observed between the groups for the overall task and each of the individual tasks with p-values <0.001, although the corresponding effect sizes were relatively small (0.17-0.25). Overall, this study demonstrates that targeted training in forensic photography can substantially enhance image quality and, in turn, increase their reliability and usability as evidence.
Forensic entomology is valuable in legal investigations for estimating the minimum post-mortem interval (minPMI) by insect species and their lifecycles on decomposing remains. While forensic entomology is well established in central-northern Europe and the UK, it has been rarely practiced in Ireland due to a lack of demand and practical expertise. Office of the State Pathologist (OSP) provides the national forensic pathology service; however specialised forensic entomology services are outsourced and instructed on a case-by-case basis. A collaboration was established between the OSP, Technological University Dublin (TU Dublin) and University of Strathclyde over the past two years. This collaboration enabled the application of forensic entomology to 10 death investigations across Ireland during May and June 2024. This professional practice report presents entomological data collected under similar environmental conditions and represents an early step in the development of forensic entomology practice in Ireland.Necrophagous Diptera are the most important insects in forensic entomology particularly flies from family Calliphoridae. Species such as Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, Lucilia sericata (Meigen, 1826), Musca domestica Linnaeus, 1758 and Fannia canicularis (Linnaeus, 1761) were identified in the 10 forensic Irish cases, and their developmental stages were used to estimate minimum PMI. Environmental details including temperature of the indoor or outdoor location and body coverings (e.g. clothing, blankets) were recorded. This study provides baseline information on forensically important species in Ireland and demonstrates the application of existing developmental data to Irish casework, supporting the future development of forensic entomology practice in Ireland.
When semen is deposited at a crime scene, it may be exposed to harmful environmental conditions. It is important to understand to what extent the different components of semen, specifically acid phosphatase (AP), prostate specific antigens (PSA), sperm and DNA, may become less detectable after exposure to high temperatures and varying levels of humidity. In this study, semen (50 μL) was deposited onto squares of black cotton and exposed to 45 °C and a relative humidity (RH) of 10 or 80% for 0, 7, 14, 21 or 28 days (n = 5 per day, per climate condition). Source testing included AP test reagent, ABAcard® p30 immunoassay kits, and hematoxylin and eosin staining. DNA was extracted using the DNA IQ™ System (Promega, Australia) and quantified using Quantfiler Trio™ (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Australia). Over the 28-day period under both RH conditions, the time taken for a positive AP test to develop increased significantly (p < 0.01) and the number of sperm observed decreased significantly (p < 0.01). All ABAcard® p30 tests were positive regardless of exposure time or conditions. No impact on the quantity of DNA recovered was observed when semen was exposed to 45 °C and 10% RH, with a higher median quantity of DNA recovered at day 28 compared to day 0. In contrast, when the RH was raised to 80%, the median quantity of DNA recovered was substantially less at day 28 (81.5 ng, IQR: 87.5 ng) compared to day 0 (181.5 ng, IQR: 1172.4 ng). This study highlights the impact that temperature and RH may have on the persistence of AP, PSA, sperm and DNA over time.
The individual variation in depositing DNA traces, historically termed “shedder status,” represents a critical variable in forensic activity level evaluations. However, the integration of this concept into casework is currently hindered by inconsistent terminology, a lack of standardized definitions, and disparate experimental methodologies. This paper presents a conceptual framework for Individual Shedding Propensity (ISP) and a scoping review of 130 relevant publications to synthesize current knowledge and identify gaps.We propose defining ISP as a stable, intrinsic personal characteristic that governs the accumulation and transfer of endogenous DNA-containing biological material. We distinguish between intrinsic propensity and transient environmental or behavioural factors. Within this framework, shedding is dissected into accumulation and transfer phases.The scoping review confirms that inter- and intrapersonal variations in shedding are indisputable. However, the ability to draw overarching conclusions is limited by widespread variation in testing methods. Classification systems vary significantly between studies, rendering much of the existing data difficult to compare. The review further analyses influencing factors, noting that while some biological traits (e.g., skin conditions) and behaviours (e.g., handwashing) are well-documented, environmental factors that interact with ISP require further investigation.To advance the field, we recommend moving toward a quantifiable and standardized ISP measure. We advocate for the harmonization of research through a standardized ISP-test—specifically utilizing the plastic tube method—to generate reproducible “ISP-scores”. Furthermore, the establishment of a centralized database for sharing ISP data is proposed.
Crime scene investigations require rapid decision-making under complex conditions, often without the opportunity for revision. Task-relevant information from similar cases can support Scene of Crime Officers (SoCOs) in making these decisions. Decision support can reduce human error and subjectivity, provide a sound basis for decision-making, and enhance transparency. What is not known is how and when to provide such decision support information so as to have the most improved outcomes. This study examines the influence of (1) providing information on the probability of recovering perpetrator DNA on decisions regarding the collection and triage of traces; (2) the timing of information provision (before trace collection, during trace collection, or during subsequent triage); and (3) differences between SoCOs and other professionals from the criminal justice system without crime scene experience. The results indicate that information on DNA success rates influences participants' decision-making. Informed participants sampled a higher proportion of locations with a high DNA success rate and sampled a lower proportion of locations with a low DNA success rate. Inconsistent with participant self-reporting, the results indicate that the impact of task-relevant information does not differ between the phases of the crime scene investigation. Lastly, this study indicates a significant difference between SoCOs and inexperienced participants for the collection of traces if participants had not received information but indicates no difference if participants had received information for either the collection or triage of traces. The results show tangible effects of providing task-relevant information, particularly when provided early in the process. However, care should be taken that SoCOs do not over-rely on such information, as case-specific circumstances must always be considered.
Background Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) enables direct detection of native DNA methylation without bisulphite conversion, offering long reads and field-deployable workflows. However, multiple ONT-compatible methylation callers differ in their underlying models, default parameters and genomic target space, and most comparative studies have evaluated them at a single sequencing depth using limited performance metrics. This makes it difficult to design ONT experiments and to interpret methylation calls in applications such as epigenetic biomarker discovery and forensic age estimation. Results We systematically benchmarked four widely used ONT methylation callers—Nanopolish, DeepSignal2, Megalodon and Remora—using whole-genome nanopore sequencing data from 26 human saliva samples and a consensus reference methylation profile derived from an Illumina Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip array saliva dataset (GSE111631; approximately 850,000 CpG sites). Performance was assessed at five coverage thresholds (1×, 5×, 10×, 30× and 100×) under three complementary analytical strategies: individual-level comparisons, within-sample consensus across tools and pooled method-level analyses. Agreement with the reference was quantified using Pearson correlation, methylation-level deviation metrics (MAE and RMSE), Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and corresponding effect size estimates, supported by visual summaries. MAE and RMSE were interpreted as technical measures of methylation-level deviation from the reference profile, not as forensic classification error rates, false-positive/false-negative rates or age-prediction error rates. Across all tools, single-read (1×) estimates were unstable and strongly method-dependent, whereas coverage ≥5× substantially improved accuracy and inter-method agreement. Increasing coverage further to 10× often yielded the best compromise between accuracy and robustness, but also led to a marked loss of shared CpG sites, highlighting a critical trade-off between depth and site retention. Conclusions This work provides, to our knowledge, the first coverage-aware, multi-metric and multi-strategy evaluation of ONT methylation callers on human saliva. Our results show that both the choice of caller and the sequencing depth have a major impact on methylation estimates, and that very high coverage thresholds can reduce the number of evaluable CpG sites to a degree that may limit downstream analyses. The study offers practical guidance for planning ONT-based methylation experiments in epigenetic and forensic contexts, particularly for selecting coverage thresholds and callers before downstream marker validation, age-prediction modelling or tissue-specific forensic interpretation.
Substance use disorders (SUDs) and drug-related deaths represent a growing global burden. Increasing evidence highlights substances ability to reshape the gut microbiome, a highly dynamic and metabolically active ecosystem that contributes to host homeostasis through interactions with neural, endocrine, and immune systems. Alterations in microbial diversity, depletion of short-chain fatty acid-producing taxa, disruption of epithelial barrier integrity, and systemic inflammation have been consistently associated with substance exposure. While these changes are increasingly characterized in living individuals, their persistence and impact after death remain less explored. In forensic contexts, drug-related fatalities are difficult to interpret due to non-specific autopsy findings, analytical limitations of toxicological methods, post-mortem redistribution, and the absence of clear lethal thresholds. The emerging study of thanatomicrobiome offers a novel avenue to address these challenges, as antemortem dysbiosis may influence post-mortem microbial succession and, consequently, post-mortem interval (PMI) estimation. This narrative review synthesises current knowledge on substance-induced microbiome alterations across antemortem and postmortem contexts, and extends this perspective to entomotoxicology, highlighting how drug-related microbial changes may influence both insect colonisation and insect-associated microbiomes. It also emphasises current methodological heterogeneity and the need for standardised approaches, outlining opportunities for future forensic applications.
The advancement of forensic and crime scene science education demands innovative tools that support inclusive, accessible, and sustainable practices. This paper examines Decompanion, a live and operational open-access taphonomic database, as a transformative resource for forensic science education. Designed to standardise methodologies, enhance global access to high-quality datasets, and foster interdisciplinary collaboration, Decompanion bridges critical gaps between research and teaching while addressing longstanding ethical and legal constraints surrounding decomposition studies. Its current features (such as interactive 3D models, global research facility mapping, and decomposition calculators) enable students and educators to engage with authentic, ethically sourced taphonomic datasets, supporting experiential learning and reducing reliance on animal models. Proposed applications include virtual laboratories, case-based exercises, and interdisciplinary projects, all of which require systematic testing in diverse educational settings. Looking ahead, integration with machine learning offers further opportunities for students to explore post-mortem interval estimation and environmental influences on decomposition using advanced analytical tools. Accessibility is also prioritised through compliance with web accessibility standards, ensuring equitable engagement regardless of physical or geographic limitations. This paper outlines strategies for expanding adoption, refining features based on user feedback, and embedding Decompanion into structured educational programmes. By exploring both current achievements and future directions, it highlights the platform's capacity to transform forensic taphonomy education through sustainable, ethical, and globally accessible practices.
DNA analysis is a powerful tool in crime scene investigations and has become increasingly sensitive in recent years. This is particularly relevant when dealing with touch DNA, a challenging type of evidence due to its invisible nature, and often limited quantity and quality. Conventional collection methods such as swabbing or taping can have certain limitations, including low recovery efficiency, handling with increased risk of contamination, and difficulties in sampling large surfaces or accessing small niches and corners. To address these challenges, the DNA-Buster was developed, a dry-vacuum DNA collection device that has demonstrated superior performance on textile substrates in previous research. However, the device has not yet been tested by its intended end users.Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of implementing the DNA-Buster within police forces using touch DNA samples from worn T-shirts collected by the crime scene investigators themselves. The study sought to gain user feedback regarding the device's secure and intuitive handling and to identify areas for optimization, such as a 3D-printed pipette tip prototype for sampling. A mock aggressor-victim scenario was additionally investigated to examine how the DNA-Buster performs on textiles compared to standard collection methods. Lastly, for the first time, the individual shedder tendencies of the crime scene investigators acting both as donors and collectors were assessed, aiming to increase the awareness of the contamination potential when handling evidence.The study outcomes confirm that the DNA-Buster outperforms swabbing on textiles and shows comparable results to taping regarding DNA concentrations and profiling success of touch DNA. These findings highlight the importance of selecting most suitable methods for each substrate to obtain optimal results. This is particularly relevant as some police forces, for various reasons, still rely on swabbing for textiles, despite its lower profiling success. Next, the DNA-Buster was operated efficiently by all collectors after minimal training and generated consistent DNA concentrations independent of collection time. Compared to taping, its advantages lie in more practical application with respect to evidence handling by police investigators and easier laboratory processing. With respect to the shedding test, observed intra- and interindividual variability among donors underscore the challenges associated with touch DNA experiments.Following this successful trial in collaboration with the intended end users, the DNA-Buster is now suitable, as a stationary tool, for the collection of trace DNA from textile evidence. However, its mobile use at crime scenes requires further evaluation based on future feedback from crime scene investigators.
Urinalysis screening tests are a component of substance use treatment programs in carceral settings. Although results of these tests are meant to be used by physicians to guide treatment, they may also influence parole suitability determinations. Utilizing administrative datasets from the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR), the present analysis quantifies the scale and institutional distribution of a reported reagent error in opiate urinalysis testing in California prisons' Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT) program from April to July 2024. Statistical methods including differences-in-differences (DD), interrupted time-series analysis, and structural break tests were applied to monthly aggregated and individual-level test data. Estimated excess positive opiate tests ranged from 4490 to 5839, with a median estimate of 5425. Facility-specific increases ranged from approximately 2 to over 16 percentage points above baseline rates. Given the potential impact of a positive urinalysis screening test result on incarcerated individuals' parole outcomes, these findings underscore the need for improved quality controls and confirmatory testing in correctional settings. Additionally, remedial reviews of parole actions influenced by potentially erroneous results may be warranted.
Forensic burials are used by perpetrators to dispose of evidence, including victims of homicide, as well as drugs, weapons, and other relevant evidence. There are many search techniques available that can increase the chances of locating these forensic burials, each with their own set of indicators that allow the grave to be identified. It is important as an investigator to understand not only the search technique being used, but what makes the grave detectable using that technique, depending on the time since burial and the contents of the grave. The aim of this pilot project was to aerially document the timelapse visible grave-related surface changes of three simulated forensic burials-full-sized pig cadaver (to mimic human remains), plastic cast teaching skeleton (to mimic other kinds of evidence), empty grave (to act as a control). The methods include systematically surveying the graves over a one-year period using a DJI Mini Pro 4, including uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV)-photography, used to document the grave surface changes, and UAV-photogrammetry, used to quantify the subtle and localised grave elevation changes. The results showed that the lack of plant life over the grave areas and the backfill halo were the most helpful grave surface changes, however, they ceased being identifiable on days 328 and 93 post burial, respectively. While vegetation regrowth occurred at a similar rate across the different burial types (day 328 for the cadaver grave and 366 for empty and non-cadaver graves), the only burial to demonstrate an elevation change was the cadaver grave which mounded at first, reaching its peak on day 8 and slowly and continually depressing until it was flattened on day 233. The study implications include demonstrating cost-effective UAV drone-based grave documentation, providing specific intelligence on useful grave indicators for forensic burial searches.
The need for more accessible provision of forensic science services for resource-limited environments is increasingly being recognised. This prompted this assessment of low- or no-cost pattern analysis software for gunshot residue (GSR) images. Interpreting the spread of deposited GSR particles on surfaces is performed during ballistic reconstructions, particularly for close-range shootings. Such reconstructions rely on the correlation between GSR particle density and muzzle-to-target distance, which necessitates detection and interpretation of particle data from visualised GSR patterns. There are multiple digital imaging approaches for visualising GSR patterns, including traditional and infrared photography, fluorescence imaging, and imaging of chemical transfer patterns, each producing an output with different characteristics requiring analysis. Here, a selection of common open-source and free-to-use scientific software and plug-ins were applied to identify and analyse GSR patterns that had been documented using different imaging methods (infrared, fluorescence, and chemical nitrite development). The primary software used was 'Fiji'; an upgrade of ImageJ with expanded functionality, coupled with plug-ins for spot counting and colour deconvolution. Next, the feasibility of performing statistical analysis on the collected datasets was demonstrated using software 'R', wherein the pattern's centroid and region of interest parameters were measured as a basis for comparisons. Together, these tools may assist ballistic reconstructions involving interpreting images of GSR patterns, as well as when conducting research or validation of new or established GSR development techniques, in both well-resourced and resource-limited environments.
The development of latent fingermarks on documents is a critical component of forensic investigations. There are several established techniques that allow for the development of fingermark deposits on this substrate type. Providing contextual information, however, such as the chronological sequence of fingermark deposition relative to printed information, is an area that is far less understood. This study builds upon previous work that explored the application of gelatin lifters to a document surface, followed by exposure to disulfur dinitride within the RECOVER™ system. The proof-of-concept study described herein utilises the same gelatin lifter medium, but alongside cyanoacrylate (superglue) fuming to provide a simpler, effective and accessible approach to determine the deposition order of fingermark deposits and printed toner. These findings highlight a potential practical innovation that integrates two commonly used forensic techniques and further expands on work to address one of the great challenges of forensic document and dactyloscopic examination.
Soil, as a prevalent form of trace evidence at crime scenes, demonstrates considerable forensic value through its transferability and geospatial distinctiveness. Tracing the geographical origin of soil from crime scenes can provide crucial evidence support for court trials and case investigations. This study investigated the forensic utility of soil evidence in traffic accident liability determination using a representative case occurring in the peri-urban areas of Yancheng City, Jiangsu Province, China. In this case, large clods of dry and hard soil were scattered on the roadway, causing an electric tricycle to overturn, which resulted in the driver’s death. Given the absence of surveillance footage and eyewitness accounts, we conducted similarity analysis using soil morphological characteristics, pH, particle size parameters, and elemental composition. Multivariate similarity assessment among accident site soils (sample ID: 0-1, 0-2) and reference samples from the suspect vehicle (1-5, 1-6, 3-4, 3-7), parking spot (4-3), and last cultivated farmland before the incident (5-2, 5-3, 5-6) revealed consistent patterns. Notably, sample 1-5 exhibits the highest degree of similarity with the accident site soil. These findings provide useful empirical support for liability determination and fair adjudication in traffic accidents.
Forensic practitioners routinely engage with the aftermath of violence rather than the moment of threat, requiring prolonged, detail-focused immersion in traumatic material. An expanding empirical literature across crime scene investigation, medicolegal death investigation, digital forensics, and forensic laboratories demonstrates elevated levels of secondary traumatic stress, burnout, cognitive disruption, and organisational strain within forensic science populations. These outcomes are shaped not only by exposure, but by a multi-dimensional occupational stressor profile-including workload intensity, role conflict, sworn-civilian inequities, zero-error culture, and adversarial legal system pressures-that constitutes the chronic stress substrate onto which traumatic exposure is layered. While psychological and organisational consequences of forensic exposure are increasingly documented, the biological and systems-level mechanisms through which trauma becomes embedded in forensic science practice remain insufficiently integrated. Drawing on trauma neuroscience, occupational health psychology, and forensicspecific empirical research, this paper introduces the Lifecycle of Forensic Trauma, a conceptual systems framework describing how exposure characteristics, biological stress activation, organisational culture, leadership practices, and structural conditions interact over time. The framework explains how trauma may become self-reinforcing through negative feedback loops linking practitioner strain, performance degradation, workload escalation, and workforce instability, and identifies evidence-supported pathways through which cumulative occupational strain may elevate forensic error vulnerability - through cognitive load, attentional degradation, decisional fatigue, and burnout-related disengagement. Adopting a theory-building orientation, this work synthesises existing evidence, identifies critical empirical gaps - particularly in biological and longitudinal measurement - and advances testable hypotheses linking practitioner well-being, organisational functioning, and forensic reliability. By situating forensic trauma as a predictable occupational injury with system-level implications, the Lifecycle framework provides a governancerelevant lens for understanding how workforce strain shapes reliability margins, organisational resilience, and the evidentiary foundations of justice.
Footprints are commonly recovered from crime scenes and accident sites. Stature estimation remains a fundamental parameter in the biological profiling of unidentified individuals, and footprint‑based methods act as an established and supplementary approach in person identification. The present cross-sectional study aims to examine the relationship between stature and footprint morphometrics in Slovak subadults and to explore their applicability in forensic anthropology caseworks and human growth research. The research included 110 subadults (58 females and 52 males) aged 10-18 years. Morphometric static footprint parameters, comprising five toe length (FPT1-FPT5), ball breadth (FPBB) and heel breadth (FPHB), along with stature, were obtained. Results indicated positive correlations of stature with all footprint variables (R = 0.366-0.894, p < 0.001), with toe lengths showing stronger associations than breadth measurements. Multiple regression models with age as a covariate demonstrated superior predictive accuracy, achieving coefficient values (R2) up to 0.910 in males and 0.820 in females. Footprints show potential for stature estimation in the subadult population, particularly when multiple footprint variables are included in regression models. Further investigations on larger and more diverse subadult populations along with age-based stratifications are recommended to validate and extend the outcomes of this research.
The location and method of disposal of a homicide victim’s body can seriously affect the success of a criminal investigation. The location of a body is of particular forensic importance as both the body and the scene are essential sources of evidence and information about the victim and the perpetrator. From the perspective of the victim’s loved ones, finding the body facilitates the grieving process and accelerates “closure”. Indeed, without a body, the investigation is severely hampered. We propose that the relationship between the victim and offender influences the method and location of the disposal of the victim’s remains.We examined 228 solved, UK, non-serial homicides which occurred between 1920 and 2020, through an exploratory open-source search strategy, and Freedom of Information requests to police forces in England and Wales. A Chi-Square Test of Independence and a Two-Step Cluster Analysis explored relationships between the victim-offender relationship, homicide location, and body disposal location, efforts, and methods.Our findings show that a statistically significant relationship exists between the victim-offender relationship and the homicide location, and the body disposal location. As a result, our findings make a significant contribution to existing knowledge of the factors that influence choice of location and disposal method of victims’ bodies.No database exists to capture homicides in the UK with elements of disposal, and so it was only possible to explore this project through an open-source, non-invasive research approach. Thus, our study recognises further research with UK police agencies could provide a more systematic dataset.This is the first scientific study to compare the location and disposal method of the body with the victim-offender relationship. It could be used to inform UK police search strategies to aid the location of the victim remains, and, unlike a simple geographical profiling tool, it may even be used to predict the victim-offender relationship from the disposal method once a body is found.
Human DNA is often collected from surfaces and item deemed associated with criminal activity to generate DNA profiles to assist investigations of criminal activity. However, it is rarely considered in animal abuse cases. Recently, it was shown that companion animals harbour human DNA, picked up from their environment, and can transfer it during contact.In this study, household dogs were swabbed in areas that are not routinely contacted during patting and similar interactions but are contacted during animal abuse, including the tail, legs and neck; to collect any human DNA present. Samples were collected from 15 dogs following three different conditions a) background samples; b) post-contact mimicking abuse by a household member; c) post-contact mimicking abuse by a non-household member.Post-contact with the household member (owner), there was an increase in the detection (number of occurrences) of this person’s DNA from background to post-contact samples in two of the areas, the leg and the tail (31% and 21%, respectively) that was significant for the leg samples. Furthermore, when looking at the quantification results, the amounts of DNA attributed to this contributor increased for all three body areas and were significantly so for the neck region. The non-household member (visitor) was detected in 53% of the samples post-contact highlighting that even brief, single contacts can lead to detectable DNA transfer. This underscores the importance of collecting samples from the animals that are suspected to have been touched during an alleged incident. The outcome of this study demonstrates the potential utility of sampling animals for human DNA to assist criminal investigations of animal abuse, and to provide data that may assist animal abuse related activity level evaluations. DNA evidence is routinely used in criminal cases, and this research can extend the use of DNA evidence to cases of animal abuse, and other criminal activities where an animal has had contact with a human.
