1. Major global horticultural and food security tephritid fruit fly pests, Bactrocera papayae (papaya fruit fly) and B. invadens (invasive fruit fly), were synonymised with B. dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) by Schutze et al. (2015a) based on extensive integrative taxonomic evidence from multiple sources. This synonymy was peer reviewed by eight independent experts.2. Drew&Romig (2016) withdrewB. papayae and B. invadens from synonymy based on opinion drawn primarily from disparate geographical distribution, morphological, and host use information. This reversal was not subjected to peer review.3. We consider the withdrawal from synonymy as invalid due to significant errors and misrepresentations of the literature provided in the arguments of Drew & Romig (2016) that we propose would not have withstood peer scrutiny.4. This case reflects a broader issue of individual taxonomic authorities using opinion to challenge extensive evidence generated via scientific hypothesis-testing methods by discipline specialists.5. We recommend that taxonomic acts not subjected to peer review, especially of pest species, be actively discouraged by the broader scientific and regulatory community.
The black parlatoria scale, Parlatoria ziziphi, is considered to be absent from Australia despite previous reports of its presence in the Darwin area of the Northern Territory in 1914 and 1915. A search of the National Australian Plant Pest Database revealed the existence of only five samples of this species from Australia, three samples from Darwin and two further collections from interceptions likely at the international quarantine border in Sydney. Intensive plant pest surveillance activities over the past 20 years, which included specific surveys for P. ziziphi, have not detected this pest species in the Darwin area or any other region of Australia. It is probable that the scale was incidentally eliminated from the country during an eradication program for citrus canker that, between 1916 and 1922, removed all known citrus plants in the Northern Territory above latitude 19°S.
The conflict between sexual and natural selections on phenotypic traits is a central concern of evolutionary biology. Body size is a key determinant of an animal's ecological and physiological properties, and one of the most important traits involved in mate choice. Selection for higher reproductive fitness may favour larger individuals, but that for survival may limit the increase of body size depending on the species and sex. Here, we used the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniellaZeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), as a model animal to investigate the possible trade-off between body size and survival. We show that heavier parents produced significantly heavier offspring than lighter ones, suggesting that body size may be a heritable trait in this species. The offspring produced by heavy parents had significantly lower survival rate than those by average and light parents. With the increase of body weight, males lost significantly and disproportionally more weight than females upon eclosion. However, the allometric sex-specific weight loss cannot explain the lower survival rate of heavier offspring because there was no significant difference in the survival rate between sexes across body weight spectrum. We suggest that the lower survival rate of heavier individuals may be attributed to conflicting selection forces that favour smaller size for higher survival because larger offspring usually need longer time to grow and undertake greater intraspecific competition for food and living space, resulting in higher cumulative mortality. The present study demonstrates a clear trade-off between body size and survival in E.kuehniella, suggesting that such counterbalancing selection stabilises body size increase.
Estimating the timescale of evolution forms an important component of many molecular studies of insects. By obtaining date estimates for significant evolutionary events, we can gain a better understanding of biological processes such as diversification and adaptation. Evolutionary timescales can be estimated from genetic sequence data using the molecular clock, which was proposed five decades ago and has subsequently undergone considerable development. In this article, we provide a summary of the theoretical basis of the molecular clock, including its relationship to the neutral and nearly neutral theories of molecular evolution. We explain how the clock can be used to estimate evolutionary timescales from DNA and protein sequence data. Finally, we describe some of the key challenges facing users of the molecular clock in studies of insects, including the problems of rate variation among lineages and over time.
The study of interacting sets of species within ecosystems community ecology is generally less familiar to entomologists than the more species-centric studies of population and behavioural ecology. Here, I review some key areas of community ecology that should be of interest and concern to entomologists. The contrasting current models of community assembly based, on the one hand, on ideas of neutral replacement and, on the other, of resource-based niche partitioning are discussed. A synthetic version that identifies a stochastic/deterministic switch point based on a characteristic spatial scale for each community studied is presented as a possible way of combining these two approaches.
Eight plant essential oils and five vegetable oils were evaluated under laboratory conditions for their repellency and oviposition deterrence effects against female Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni, using artificial substrates and apple fruits. The results showed that vegetable oils were more effective than essential oils in deterring oviposition. The oil with most potential was that of safflower Carthamus tinctorius. This vegetable oil, at a concentration of 10mL/L, significantly reduced oviposition in apples by 56.4% in a 24h choice test, but none of the tested essential and vegetable oils had a significant effect on oviposition in apples in a no-choice test. Based on the number of fruit flies landing on treated apples, vegetable oils were not repellents but deterred oviposition. The likely mechanism is that safflower and other vegetable oils created a slippery surface, and females were unable to make punctures in the fruit for egg deposition. Essential oils, especially lemon-scented tea tree Leptospermum petersonii, peppermint Mentha piperita and honey myrtle Melaleuca teretifolia, repelled female B.tryoni, but their persistence on apple fruits was very low, only for a few hours.
The red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore, has been introduced from Australia into several countries, mostly in the Americas and Europe. It was first discovered in Brazil in 2003 and has continued to spread there. Today, the species is a major pest in eucalypt plantations and often requires expensive control measures. Ecological modelling is used here to estimate the potential spread of G.brimblecombeii, worldwide and particularly in Brazil, based on environmental variables from 502 records of G.brimblecombei around the world. Distribution data from Australia were obtained from the literature and recent field surveys. For the first time, G.brimblecombei is recorded from Western Australia. Through the Openmodeller (R) program interface, 22 bioclimatic variables were used to test the efficacy of the following models: BIOCLIM, Climate Space Model, Envelope Score, Environmental Distance, GARP with best subsets (new Openmodeller implementation), GARP new Openmodeller implementation, GARP best subsets (Desktop GARP implementation), Niche Mosaic and Support Vector Machines. Among these models, Environmental Distance was the best predictor for the potential distribution of G.brimblecombei in new regions. Temperate areas appeared to be more favourable for G.brimblecombei. Regions with highest probability of occurrence in Brazil, in hierarchical order are: the southern part of the Atlantic Forest, Pampa, Caatinga and Cerrado. This modelling procedure provides a useful tool that should be incorporated in future strategies for pest management in eucalypt plantations.
This study reports on four species of mites in the family Histiostomatidae phoretic on the Australian giant earwig, Titanolabis colossea (Dohrn) (Dermaptera: Anisolabididae). The species included are Histiostoma australiense Mahunka 1975, H. feroniarum (Dufour 1839), H. humiditatis (Vitzthum 1927) and H. titanolabi sp. nov. The previously unknown adults of H. australiense are described from specimens reared in laboratory culture.
Body temperature in insects is affected by interactions between environmental variables, behavioural choices and the physiological state of the animal. Insect larvae display a number of tactics for thermoregulation which allow their body temperatures to deviate several degrees from ambient. Thermoregulatory adaptations can reduce generation time and allow higher population growth rates. However, few investigations have examined thermoregulation of moulting larvae. This study measured whether moulting Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae thermoregulate, and, if so, whether they thermoregulate similarly to feeding larvae. Body temperatures of moulting and feeding larvae were compared to their microhabitat temperatures. In three of four environments, feeding larvae were able to thermoregulate in such a way that their body temperature was higher than ambient at low ambient temperature, and lower than ambient at higher ambient temperature. However, moulting larvae appear not to thermoregulate because their body temperature did not differ from ambient in three of four environments. These results pose the question of whether larvae are behaviourally and/or physiologically constrained from thermoregulating during the moulting process. Additional studies are needed to address such questions and would help to elucidate the impact of thermoregulation of moulting larvae on the ecology and evolution of insects.
Heteronyx dimidiata and H.crinitus are significant pests of young Eucalyptus spp. plantations in Tasmania, but little is known about their biology. Adult beetles feeding on the leaves and developing leaf buds of young seedlings can severely affect their growth and form or even kill them. Yellow-vaned funnel traps were used to monitor the flight activity of Heteronyx in a commercial plantation over 3 years. Visual searches were also conducted to determine the incidence of inactive beetles in the soil underneath trees and the presence of active beetles on leaves. Over 12000 H.dimidiata and 1300 H.crinitus were collected during the study. The pattern of trap captures was similar in both species with over 90% of beetles being caught in spring and low numbers being caught throughout summer and autumn. High numbers of H.dimidiata were found in the soil surrounding the roots of Eucalyptus nitens seedlings, but very few larvae were present, indicating that oviposition occurs outside these plantations. Trap data suggest that spring flight activity is principally due to the emergence of overwintering adult beetles and that newly eclosed beetles typically invade plantations during late summer/autumn. Spring trap captures were strongly male biased, suggesting a scramble mating system where males were more active as they competitively searched for females. Over 65% of the variation in H.dimidiata activity in spring was accounted for by levels of solar radiation and wind. Females mated up to three times and ovarian development usually commenced in spring. The incidence of food in the crop was highest during autumn/winter, but the presence of fat in the abdomen was similar throughout the year. The use of yellow-vaned funnel traps to monitor the flight activity of diurnally active Heteronyx species in commercial Eucalyptus spp. plantations is recommended.
Members of the Culex sitiens subgroup of mosquitoes are important arbovirus vectors in the Australasian region. However, some species in this group, particularly Cx.annulirostris and Cx.palpalis, are difficult to distinguish based on morphological characters alone. We evaluated the reliability of morphological characters commonly used in taxonomic keys against a PCR-based diagnostic tool that examined the ribosomal ITS1 gene region. Although reliable morphological characters allow identification, molecular identification remains the most accurate means for distinguishing Cx. annulirostris and Cx. palpalis.
In host-parasitoid interactions, the venom fluid of a female wasp (Cotesia glomerata) is considered to play a role in regulation of the host immune response to protect her offspring. In this study, we detected a rapid increase in protein content in the female C. glomerata venom reservoir just after eclosion, at which time the venom gland cell exhibited fine structures typical of secretory function. We isolated a protein from the venom, termed C. glomerata venom protein 1 (CgVP1). After N-terminal amino acid sequencing analysis of CgVP1, the complementary DNA (cDNA) encoding this protein was cloned and sequenced. Two cDNAs (CgVP1-a and CgVP1-b) were obtained whose nucleotide sequences differed at two positions, resulting in putative substitutions of amino acid residues at two positions in the mature protein. The following features were indicated by cDNA sequence analysis and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis: (1) CgVP1 consists of 81 amino acid residues, eight of which are cysteine; (2) CgVP1 is preceded by a putative secretory signal consisting of 18 amino acids; (3) the molecular masses of mature CgVP1-a and CgVP1-b are 9316.2 and 9302.0, respectively; (4) the eight cysteines of CgVP1 form four pairs of intramolecular disulfide bonds; and (5) BLAST searching indicated that CgVP1 has no similarity to previously reported proteins.
Two new species of Fergusonina flies are described from terminal leaf bud galls on Eucalyptus from south-eastern Australia. Fergusonina herbaservusNelson sp. nov. and Fergusonina manchesteriPurcell sp. nov. are the first species of fly from the genus Fergusonina to be described from Eucalyptus stellulata (black sallee) and E.viminalis (manna gum), respectively. The two species can be distinguished from all other described Fergusonina by host specificity, adult colour and setation, morphology of the genitalia, and morphology of the dorsal shield. These records represent the first record of Fergusonina galling for black sallee and a new Fergusonina gall type for manna gum.
Mating behaviour in the crusader bug, Mictis profana (Heteroptera: Miridae) is described. Using scan samples of marked individuals in outdoor enclosures, it is shown that larger males secure more matings than do small males. From videotaped recordings of captive individuals, a series of stereotyped male courtship behaviours are documented, which appear to include the use of a putative weapon – the median abdominal tubercle – in tactile stimulation of the female. The fighting behaviour of this species based on videotaped observations of male–male combat over access to females was also described.
The Australasian braconid wasp fauna has an apparent high proportion of reduced-winged and wingless species compared with other regions, although the reasons for this are not particularly clear. In this study, five such new species of Doryctinae, Dendrosotinus (Gildoria) chathamicus sp. nov. (Chatham Is, New Zealand), Neorhaconotus julieae sp. nov. (Australia), Ontsira naumanni sp. nov. (Australia), Spathiomorpha jenningsi sp. nov. (Australia), and Spathius thorpei sp. nov. (New Zealand), are described and illustrated from the region. The first four of these represent the first records of flightless species in their respective genera. Spathius pedestrisWesmael is recorded from the region (New Zealand) for the first time and has undoubtedly been introduced there, having been reared from the common furniture beetle (Anobiidae), Anobium punctatumDe Geer. The makeup of the Australasian doryctine fauna and possible reasons for the evolution of flightless species are discussed.
Dasineura gannoni Kolesik sp. nov. is the first gall midge species known to feed on plants from the Hakea-Grevillea generic alliance. D. gannoni induces galls on swamp-loving Hakea microcarpa R. Br. and H. nodosa R. Br., flowering plant shrubs naturally occurring in south-east mainland Australia and Tasmania. The gall is a conspicuous red-coloured, multi-chambered, leaf swelling containing one, occasionally two, red larvae in each chamber. Pupation takes place in the soil. The new species was originally identified on H. microcarpa near Thredbo River in New South Wales. Later examination of herbarium vouchers found presence of galls of the new species on further specimens of H. microcarpa and another swamp-loving species H. nodosa. The geographical range of the new species extends over much of the combined distribution area of the two host plants on mainland Australia from far south-east Queensland through east New South Wales to Victoria and south-east South Australia.
An overview of all families, subfamilies, genera and species of Cynipoidea present in Australia is presented. The Australian cynipoid fauna is very poorly known, with 37 genera recorded: one each for Austrocynipidae, Ibaliidae and Liopteridae; two for Cynipidae; and 32 for Figitidae. The first Australian records are given for the following genera of Eucoilinae: Aganaspis Lin, Areaspis Lin, Chrestosema Forster, Didyctium Riley, Endecameris Yoshimoto, Ganaspis Forster, Leptolamina Yoshimoto, Micreriodes Yoshimoto, Pseudodiranchis Yoshimoto, Sinochresta Lin and Weldia Yoshimoto. Nine new combinations, two new synonymies and one reinstatement are made: Eucoilinae (Figitidae): Hexacola aemilia comb. n., Hexacola florentia comb. n., Hexacola julia comb. n., Hexacola mozarti comb. n., Hexacola thoreauini comb. n., Kleidotoma marguerita comb. n., Leptopilina lonchaeae comb. n., Leptopilina maria comb. n., Trybliographa australiensis stat. rev. (Rhoptromeris unimaculus syn. n.); Thrasorinae (Figitidae): Thrasorus berlesi comb. n. (Thrasorus rieki Paretas-Martinez & Pujade-Villar 2011 syn. n.). Aspects on the systematics, distribution, biology and morphology of all cynipoid families and figitid subfamilies in Australia are given. A multi-character online key to the genera of Australian Cynipoidea can be found at http://www.ces.csiro.au/keys/Hymenoptera/Australian_Cynipoidea/Australian-Cynipoidea-Keys.html.
Five new species of the lace bug genus Lasiacantha are described herein, L.adamah n. sp., L.caneriverensis n. sp., L.meedo n. sp., L.ningaloo n. sp. and L.spinosa n. sp., bringing the current number of Australian Lasiacantha species to 24. All new species of Lasiacantha are from the Carnarvon and Pilbara bioregions of Western Australia, where previously only one species was known. Further, half the Australian Lasiacantha species now known are from Western Australia. One of the new species, L.spinosa, has also been found in inland southern Queensland. This work also contains new collection and host plant records for L.pilbara Cassis and Symonds, corrections to the larval morphology of L.aureolus Cassis and Symonds and L.luritja Cassis and Symonds, a revised key to all representatives of Australian Lasiacantha, and a discussion of Lasiacantha host associations. Also provided are photos and mapped distributions of the new species and some habitat and host plant photos.
Culex molestus was probably introduced into Australia in the 1940s and represents a potentially important nuisance-biting pest and vector of disease-causing pathogens in urban areas. The aims of this study were to review the literature to determine the current and historical distribution of Cx. molestus in Australia, analyse the genetic similarity of specimens collected from various locations in Australia with reference to specimens from North America, Asia and Europe, and document the seasonal abundance of this mosquito in the Sydney region. Results showed that Cx. molestus is common in southern Australia, but there was no evidence that this mosquito is found north of latitude 28.17 degrees S. Molecular analysis indicated that specimens from various locations throughout Australia shared strong genetic similarity and that it was most likely introduced from Asia, possibly through multiple introductions over the past 70 years. Analysis of the seasonal abundance of Cx. molestus indicated that the species does not display diapause during the cooler months. Consideration should be given to the unique biology and ecology of this species when assessing the public health risk and the surveillance methods required in the management of Cx. molestus within urban areas of Australia.
