The present study details the optimization, characterization, and moisture sorption properties of films fabricated from tamarind polysaccharide (TP), PVA, and glycerol. Single-factor experiments showed that a 5 g TP/100 mL solution is ideal for film formation. TP (5 g) and PVA (0.875 g) were blended with a composition of 85 and 15 wt.%, respectively, in 100 mL of water. Next, amounts of glycerol and glutaraldehyde were optimized using response surface methodology. Box-Behnken design was used to analyze the effects of glycerol (0.5-4.0 mL/100 mL) and glutaraldehyde (0-1.25 g/100 mL) on the film's mechanical properties, namely, tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (% El). Glycerol played a significant role in affecting both TS and % El. The optimum conditions were found to be: glycerol 70 wt.%, glutaraldehyde 3.6 wt.%, respectively, with respect to TP. The optimized films showed a TS of 8.64 MPa and a % El of 52.45. WVTR of the optimized film was 55.715 g/m2/h. Without PVA, the optimized films showed reduced values of TS (7.21) and % El (51.67), and increased values of WVTR (56.66 g/m2/h), highlighting the reinforcing role of PVA in improving barrier and mechanical properties. The optimized films with PVA underwent 43.72% weight loss at the end of 28 days. Moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) studies at 35 degrees C were best described by the Peleg model in this study. FTIR analysis confirmed the formation of intermolecular crosslinking interactions of glutaraldehyde with PVA and TP, while SEM revealed surface roughness upon PVA incorporation. XRD patterns indicated similar patterns, while DSC analysis demonstrated slightly increased melting temperature with PVA incorporation.
The use of biodegradable packaging produced with renewable raw materials is an important aspect of sustainability. Researchers seek methods to improve packaging with the use of natural components containing bioactive properties during production. The aim of the present study was to prepare and characterize corn starch biofilms modified and copolymerized with different forms of pink peppercorn. Nine biofilms with different compositions were prepared. Seven samples were prepared by replacing the amount of starch with pink peppercorn granules (0% to 50% replacement); one sample was prepared by adding pink peppercorn boiling extract and one was prepared by adding pink peppercorn infusion extract. The biofilms were assessed through water absorption, water solubility, and moisture assays and characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, mechanical resistance tests, and biodegradability assays in soil. The addition of pink peppercorn in granule form to the films reduced the mass loss at primary decomposition (between 237 degrees C and 348 degrees C) from 74.38% (no peppercorn) to 41.10% (50% peppercorn in granules). Water absorption generally decreased with the increase in peppercorn granule content, but the opposite behavior occurred with peppercorn extract. The biofilms produced in this work are potential biocompatible, biodegradable materials for food packaging in real-world situations.
The effects of molecular interaction between heat-treated whey protein (WPI) and octenyl succinic anhydride modified starch (OSAS) on the structural, rheological, digestibility, and release properties of WPI-OSAS were investigated. Results revealed that the molecular interaction of WPI-OSAS had a positive influence on the degree of substitution, rough surface, storage modulus, loss modulus, tan delta, resistant starch content, encapsulation efficiency of curcumin, and controlled release of curcumin in simulated gastrointestinal conditions, but there was a negative effect on R1047/1022, equilibrium hydrolysis percentage, and kinetic constant. These effects were more evident in WPI-OSAS with WPI heat treatment temperature at 90 degrees C, caused by the stronger hydrophobic interaction between WPI and OSAS. The hydrophobic interaction of WPI-OSAS improved the rheology, anti-digestibility, encapsulation, and release properties of WPI-OSAS, which enriched the application of WPI-OSAS in functional foods.
The rheological and textural properties of starches from glutinous rice (GR), japonica rice (JR), and indica rice (IR) were systematically investigated to establish their relationships with cooked rice quality. GR starches exhibited the highest peak viscosities and the lowest pasting temperatures but very weak gel-forming capacity, consistent with negligible amylose content. In contrast, IR starches, especially DFR-S, displayed superior thermal stability, the highest final, and setback viscosities, and the largest storage modulus (G '), indicating strong retrogradation and elastic gel network formation. All starch pastes showed pseudoplastic and shear-thinning behavior. Significant positive correlations were found between cooked rice hardness, cohesiveness, and chewiness and starch rheological parameters, including pasting temperature, setback viscosity, and consistency coefficient (K). The setback viscosity/peak viscosity ratio and K provided the strongest predictive models for cooked rice texture (R-2 > 0.95 for cohesiveness and resilience). Variations among genotypes with similar amylose content further suggested contributions from amylopectin fine structure. These findings offer quantitative predictive tools for cooked rice quality evaluation and a theoretical foundation for breeding and processing strategies.
V-type porous starch exhibiting exceptional oil-adsorption capacity was prepared via rapid ethanolic hydrochloric acid (HCl) hydrolysis of V-type granular starch. X-ray diffraction confirmed preferential removal of amorphous regions, resulting in progressive increases in V-type relative crystallinity. At 0.5% HCl, extending hydrolysis from 10 to 30 min gradually elevated oil uptake from 158.64% to 226.49% while retaining granule contours. For 1.0% HCl, maximal adsorption (358.80%) and specific surface area (45.67 m2/g) were achieved within 10 min; continued hydrolysis to 20 min reduced both parameters; after 30 min, near-peak uptake (348.59%) was restored with the highest V-type crystallinity. SEM corroborated these trends: 10 min preserved granules, 20 min induced collapse, and 30 min produced fragments with a loosely and uniformly porous structure. Granule integrity is dispensable; performance is governed synergistically by high specific surface area and hydrophobic V-type single helical cavities.
In this study, breads prepared with varying concentrations of quinoa seeds flour were analyzed for changes in fat content, total phenol and flavonoid levels, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, fatty acid profiles, lipid index values, and mineral contents. In addition, the sensory properties of the breads were evaluated. The incorporation of quinoa seeds significantly affected the nutritional composition of the breads. Increasing quinoa levels led to higher phenolic content, enhanced antioxidant capacity, and elevated certain mineral values. L* and a* color values of breads were determined between 50.23 (45% quinoa flour bread) and 73.77 (control) to 17.31 (45% quinoa flour bread) and 25.28 (control), respectively. Total phenolic and flavonoid quantities of the wheat breads fortified qunioa flour were characterized to be between 31.27 (control) and 73.99 mgGAE/100 g (45% quinoa flour bread) to 12.62 (control) and 95.00 mg/100 g (45% quinoa flour bread), respectively. Antioxidant capacities of the breads were defined to be between 4.68 (control) and 5.64 mmol/kg (45% quinoa flour bread). A decrease in phenolic compounds was observed in breads prepared with quinoa added up to 30% concentration. The phenolic compounds whose amounts decreased with the increase in quinoa flour were catechin and cinnamic acid. In general, the highest amounts of phenolic compounds were detected in the bread sample prepared with 30% quinoa flour. Nutritive value index (NVI), atherogenic index (AI), thrombogenic index (TI), and HPI index values of oils of wheat breads prepared with quinoa flour at different concentrations showed some fluctuations depending on quinoa flour concentrations. The protein quantities of breads were provided to be between 14.56% (control) and 16.34% (45% quinoa flour bread). P and K quantities of breads were characterized to be between 1988.94 (control) and 3684.68 mg/kg (45% quinoa flour bread) and 2270.29 (control) and 5012.86 mg/kg (45% quinoa flour bread), respectively. Since quinoa-infused breads contain high concentrations of quinoa, leading to a richness in bioactive properties, phenolic compounds, and essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid, further research on these concentrations in bakery products is recommended.
This study investigated the effect of heat moisture treatment (HMT) on the structure, physicochemical properties, and in vitro digestibility of lotus root starch (LRS). The application of HMT-modified LRS in sweet potato starch noodles (SPSNs) was also evaluated. Results showed that HMT-modified LRS exhibited a rougher surface with some pits. HMT did not alter the B-type crystalline pattern, but it significantly increased the relative crystallinity of LRS (crystallinity: 12.25-43.04). The short-range order of LRS (R-1047/1022:1.99-4.17, R-998/1022: 7.23-11.05) was enhanced by HMT. HMT treatment resulted in an increase in gelatinization temperature and enthalpy, as well as water and oil absorption capacities, and pasting temperatures and viscosity of LRS, while reducing swelling power and solubility. Meanwhile, HMT-modified LRS demonstrated lower G' and G '' values with tan delta<1. The resistant starch (RS) content decreased after HMT treatment, but had no impact on the total content of slowly digestible starch (SDS) and RS. Furthermore, when incorporating HMT-modified LRS into SPSNs, these noodles displayed lower cooking loss, shorter cooking time, higher swelling index, and softer texture. Therefore, HMT-modified LRS can be effectively utilized as a texture-improving agent for SPSNs targeting elderly consumers.
Natural polysaccharide flocculants, with their green, safe, and renewable properties, represent a transition of sustainable development in the field of water treatment. However, they are confronted with challenges regarding their flocculation efficiency and feasibility under complex environmental factors. In this study, a ternary anionic flocculant of xanthan gum-sodium p-styrenesulfonate-sodium alginate (XSS) was synthesized by means of hydrothermal polymerization. The optimal synthesis conditions were determined with monomer ratio of 1:2:1, initiator dosage of 1.0 wt%, reaction time of 5 h, and reaction temperature of 65 degrees C based on the flocculation efficiency of cationic dye methylene blue (MB). At an XSS concentration of 200 mg/L, the maximum removal efficiency toward 100 mg/L MB simulated wastewater reached 82.1%, due to its rich functional groups and negative charge. Moreover, it showed superior flocculation performance at a pH range of 4-10, temperatures between 10 degrees C and 40 degrees C, and with various inorganic salts of Na+, Ca2 +, and Fe3 +. Correlation analysis between the maximum removal efficiency and initial dye concentration indicates that charge neutralization is the dominant flocculation mechanism. The operating expense was calculated about 72% of that of an anionic polyacrylamide with comparable decolorization efficiency. The successful preparation of XSS provides a new approach for the utilization of natural polysaccharides for wastewater treatment in terms of environmental safety and high efficiency.
This study reports the sustainable synthesis of a biodegradable hydrogel designed for efficient removal of methylene blue dye from water. Natural polymers, sodium alginate, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and Acacia AR gum were employed as the hydrogel matrix, while environmentally benign crosslinkers, citric acid, and calcium chloride, were used to develop nontoxic, eco-friendly hydrogel networks. The primary objective was to fabricate an adsorbent material that combines high dye removal efficiency with environmental safety. Among the prepared formulations, the S7-H3CL hydrogel exhibited the highest swelling capacity (3960.6%). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed successful crosslinking within the polymer network, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a highly porous surface morphology that supports enhanced water uptake. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results indicated reduced crystallinity and a predominantly amorphous structure in the S7-H3CL hydrogel, which is favorable for high swelling performance. Swelling behavior was systematically evaluated under different pH conditions, temperatures, and time intervals. The S7-H3CL hydrogel achieved maximum swelling of 3960.6% in distilled water after 5 h, 1840% under alkaline conditions, and maintained high swelling (similar to 3960%) even at low temperature (3 degrees C). UV-vis spectrophotometric analysis demonstrated effective dye adsorption, with the S7-H3CL sample showing the lowest residual methylene blue absorbance (2.265). Biodegradation studies further confirmed the environmental compatibility and structural stability of the developed hydrogel. Overall, the results demonstrate that the prepared biodegradable hydrogel is a promising and sustainable candidate for water purification applications. Overall, this research highlights a promising, biodegradable, and nontoxic hydrogel composite for effective dye removal from wastewater, contributing to sustainable water purification technologies.
Biocomposite films were prepared using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a matrix, reinforced with natural fillers such as pistachio shell powder (PSP) and orange-peel powder (OPP), with citric acid (CA) serving as a crosslinking agent. The films were fabricated via solution casting and evaluated for their structural and functional properties. FTIR analysis indicated enhanced intermolecular interactions and hydrogen bonding, particularly in films containing 0.3 wt% PSP and 0.2 wt% CA, suggesting improved filler-matrix compatibility. PSP-reinforced films exhibited enhanced hydrophobicity due to their higher lignin content, whereas OPP-reinforced films showed increased moisture absorption owing to their carbohydrate-rich composition. Crosslinked films demonstrated reduced water sensitivity and improved structural integrity. Biodegradation studies confirmed the eco-friendly nature of the films, with PSP-based samples showing slower degradation due to increased crosslinking density. These results highlight PSP as an effective reinforcement for improving the performance of CMC-based films for sustainable packaging applications.
Starch is a structurally complex plant biopolymer with an enzymatic susceptibility regulated by its molecular organization and supramolecular architecture. In this study, the in vitro enzymatic digestibility of starch from Brosimum alicastrum (ramon seed starch, RSS) as a nonconventional starch biopolymer was researched and compared with maize starch (MS) in native and gelatinized states. Two complementary analytical approaches were used: the INFOGEST static gastrointestinal digestion protocol, which allows phase-resolved evaluation of oral, gastric, and intestinal hydrolysis, and a standardized enzymatic assay to quantify digestible (DS) and resistant starch (RS) fractions. Native ramon seed starch (N-RSS) had higher enzymatically RS (17.40%) and lower DS (65.55%) content than MS (7.87% and 85.03%, respectively), indicating enhanced resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. Thermal gelatinization increased enzymatic susceptibility, with a pronounced reduction of RS content (1.95% for RSS and 0.87% for MS). The results highlight the distinctive digestion behavior of RSS as a plant-derived biopolymer, demonstrating the utility of combining INFOGEST digestion with enzymatic assays to probe structure-function relationships in starch systems. These findings position B. alicastrum starch as a relevant model for studying enzymatic resistance in nonconventional biopolymers and support its potential incorporation into nutritional and functional applications.
Commercially available muffins have a high glycemic index and are preserved using chemical preservatives. This research investigates the development of muffins with reduced glycemic index and preserved naturally by fortifying pomegranate peel powder (PPP). PPPs were evaluated for thermal, thermogravimetric analysis, and physicochemical properties before fortification in muffins. Muffins fortified with 8% PPP, which were sensorially acceptable, were compared with a commercial sample for glycemic index, bioaccessibility of bioactives, and antioxidant activity through in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, along with shelf life. Peak and conclusion temperatures were significantly higher in tray-dried PPP, whereas enthalpy was higher in sun-dried PPP (3.84 J/g) as compared to tray-dried powder (3.07 J/g). Thermogravimetric analysis, the residual mass recorded in tray-dried PPP was higher (28.81%) as compared to sun-dried (3.69%). The bio-accessibility of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity was significantly higher in PPP fortified muffins. Fortification of PPP in muffins resulted in a reduction in glycemic index from 80.46 to 68.50. The shelf life of the PPP fortified muffin is par with the market sample containing synthetic preservatives. The PPP in muffins improved the bioaccessibility of nutrients. PPP fortification in muffins not only enhanced the nutritional value but also improved the release of these nutrients during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and made them available for absorption, reduced the glycemic index, and also holds potential as a natural preservative.
The influence of freeze-thaw conditions on water-holding capacity (WHC), swelling capacity (SC), and oil-holding capacity (OHC) of Nelumbo nucifera rhizome starch (NNRS) was optimized. For optimization, a 4-factorial central composite design (CCD) was constructed on three levels of each of the four input factors, including freezing temperature (F-T: 0, -20, -40 degrees C), freezing time (F-t: 24, 48, 72 h), thawing time (T-t: 2, 4, and 6 h) and freeze-thaw cycles (FTC: 2, 4, and 6 h). The NNRS was treated using various combinations of input variables that CCD chose. The freeze-thaw-treated N. nucifera rhizome starch (FTT-NNRS) was examined for its physical and functional characteristics. A statistically significant main effect (p < 0.001) of freeze-thaw treatment was observed on WHC, SC, and OHC of NNRS. F-T showed a positive linear effect on WHC and SC, a positive quadratic effect on WHC, SC, and OHC, and a positive interaction with FTC on SC and F-t on OHC. F-t has a linear impact on SC, a positive quadratic effect on SC and OHC, and a positive interaction with FTC on SC and OHC. It showed a positive interaction with F-T on OHC and a quadratic effect on WHC and SC. FTC showed a positive linear effect on WHC, SC, and OHC and a quadratic effect on WHC and SC. Freeze-thaw treatment resulted in about 26%, 83%, and 28% increase in WHC, SC, and OHC, respectively. The optimum levels of free-thaw variables to achieve the optimal levels of WHC (126.75%), SC (616.65%), and OHC 177.59%) were F-T: -18.64 degrees C, F-t: 71.75 h, T-t: 5.97 h, and FTC: 5.75, for WHC, F-T: -18.8 degrees C, F-t: 71.59 h, T-t: 3.98 h, and FTC: 3.86 for SC and F-T: 14.65 degrees C, F-t: 45.46 h, T-t: 2 h, and FTC: 2 for OHC. The observed variations in WHC, SC, and OHC of FTT-NNRS were attributed to time-dependent changes in starch structure and the exposure of hydroxyl groups. In conclusion, freeze-thaw treatment significantly changed the morphology and structure and enhanced the water absorption, swelling, and oil absorption capacities of NNRS.
The lack of water in arid areas affects the level of agricultural productivity greatly. Although synthetic hydrogels enhance soil water retention, they are not biodegradable and expensive. In this study, we have formulated bio-based superabsorbent hydrogels synthesized using acrylic acid (AA) crosslinked with (i) gelatin/agar, (ii) gelatin/potato starch, and loaded with 3 and 7 wt% Curcuma longa (turmeric) as a natural bioactive material. These hydrogels were analyzed using FT-IR, SEM, TEM, EDS/Mapp analysis, and TGA. The most successful composition containing 7 wt% Curcuma longa in gelatin/agar has shown swelling ability of 1742% in 6 h, water retention of more than 50% for 22 days, and biodegradability in 30 days with 98% degradation. The studied hydrogel worked effectively under neutral conditions (pH = 7) and in saline solutions (0.9-3% NaCl). Radish plant growth analysis has shown a plant length increase of 68% for 35 days. Fungal contamination has not been found during the experiment. The proposed bio-hydrogel is a potential soil water enhancer for use in agriculture under drought conditions.
Green banana flour is a sustainable product with recognized nutritional potential due to its high resistant starch (RS) and phenolic compound content. This study characterized the proximate composition, RS content, total phenolic compounds (Folin-Ciocalteu method), and the in vitro digestion resistance of starch (INFOGEST static digestion model) of green banana flours from the "Prata An & atilde;" variety, produced from either the whole fruit (FI) or pulp only (FP), and compared them with two commercial products (FC1 and FC2). All flours complied with legal moisture requirements (<15 g/100 g). Pulp flour (FP) had higher RS content (57.6 g/100 g) than whole flour (FI, 41.5 g/100 g), while commercial flours showed significantly lower RS (FC1: 27.2; FC2: 26.2 g/100 g). Whole flour had higher total phenolic content (364 mg/100 g) than pulp flour (171 mg/100 g), likely attributable to peel-derived compounds; the highest levels were found in FC2 (463 mg/100 g). Fraction resistant after digestion of RS was very low for both FI (1.19%) and FP (1.62%), confirming resistance to enzymatic digestion under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. These results provide relevant compositional and functional data supporting the potential of green banana flour as a source of RS and phenolic compounds in food applications.
Porous materials are of great interest for enhancing the stability and delivery of bioactive compounds. The present study explored a porous starch-based Pickering emulsion (PSPE) designed for colon-targeted delivery of curcumin, leveraging the mesoporous architecture and interfacial properties of porous starch (PS). The emulsion was formulated as a stable oil-in-water (O/W) system using PS (6% w/v) and guar gum (1% w/v) as the wall matrix, with flaxseed oil (2% v/v) containing curcumin (80 ppm) as the dispersed phase. Compared to a native starch-based emulsion (NSPE), PSPE exhibited significantly higher encapsulation efficiency (83.07% +/- 2.03%) and superior interfacial stabilization, as confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated no chemical interactions among components, supporting physical encapsulation. Shelf stability tests (4 +/- 2 degrees C, for 15 days) revealed that PSPE maintained lower particle size, higher zeta potential, and reduced creaming index, contributing to enhanced emulsion stability. Furthermore, PSPE demonstrated slower curcumin release kinetics and improved resistance under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, underscoring its potential as a starch-based carrier for site-specific delivery. These findings highlight the functional advantages of porous starch in emulsion-based delivery systems and offer a novel approach for improving bioactive retention and colon-targeted release.
Capsules, as oral drug carriers, can effectively shield against gastric irritation. However, traditional gelatin capsules face the challenge of rising raw material costs. This study used hydroxypropyl starch (HPS) to replace part of the gelatin (Ge) in a predetermined ratio to prepare hard capsules. By using a compound system, the cost of raw materials was reduced while maintaining the necessary mechanical and disintegration properties of the hard capsules. The rheological behavior of compound solutions with different HPS/Ge ratios and the performance of their capsules were compared. Rheological tests showed that as the HPS ratio increased, the viscosity of the composite gel solution decreased, maintaining processing characteristics suitable for molding hard capsules. Mechanical property analysis showed that the tensile strength of HPS5/Ge5 hard capsules reached 28.37 MPa, which was significantly improved by about 38% compared with HPS10/Ge0, confirming that the composite system of gelatin and HPS effectively formed a network structure. No significant differences were observed between FT-IR and XRD. All composite hard capsules have a water contact angle greater than 100 degrees, exhibiting a certain degree of hydrophobicity. In simulated gastric fluid, the disintegration time of hard capsules was less than 5 min, which meets the standards of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. This study verified the feasibility of partially replacing gelatin with HPS in the preparation of hard capsules, providing new ideas and experimental evidence for the development of low-cost, green, and safe hard capsules.
The antitumor activity of fungal polysaccharides has attracted considerable attention due to their high efficacy and low side effects. In this work, an extracellular polysaccharide fraction EPS-3, exhibiting significant antiproliferative activity was obtained from Inonotus hispidus (I. hispidus) fermentation broth through an activity-guided separation method. EPS-3 was identified as an anionic, glucosyl-branched mannoglucan polysaccharide composed of glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid in the molar ratio of 1:0.19:0.04. It contains 1,4-linked glucosyl and alpha-1,4/1,6-linked mannosyl units and has a weight-average molecular weight of 99 kDa. In HepG2 cancer cell culture, EPS-3 reduced HepG2 cell viability by 51.68% at 300 & micro;g/mL. EPS-3 inhibited HepG2 cells proliferation by inducing apoptosis via cell cycle arrest through a mitochondria-mediated caspase-dependent pathway as evidenced by the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and the elevated expression of apoptosis-related proteins induced by EPS-3 in HepG2 cells. Taken together, the I. hispidus-derived exopolysaccharide significantly contributes to the suppression of hepatic tumor cells and, therefore, may be further developed as a promising functional food component or an antitumor adjuvant for the prevention or treatment of liver cancer.
This study reports the use of Citrus limon (C. limon) juice as a natural multifunctional crosslinking agent along with varying glycerol content to develop corn starch-based bioplastics via an environmentally benign and cost-effective process. The influence of glycerol content (i.e., 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% wt. percentages) as a plasticizer on the structural, thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties of the films was systematically investigated. Water was used as the solvent to prepare the bioplastic films through the solvent casting technique. The milder acidic profile of C. limon juice effectively facilitated esterification even under mild thermal conditions (105 degrees C).Optimal cross-linking was achieved at 15% glycerol loading, as confirmed by FTIR, XRD, and FESEM analyses, showing strong interactions between starch hydroxyl groups and organic acids present in the juice. Studies on mechanical results indicate that the films added with 15% glycerol exhibited excellent tensile strength (9.1 MPa), elongation at break (13.2%) and Young's modulus (202 MPa). The thermal stability of the film was apparently improved (up to 328 degrees C) whereas decreasing water vapor permeability (3.58 & times;10-7 g cm cm-1 s-1 mm Hg-1) and swelling degree (100%) indicate the effective enhancement of the physical properties of the starch film. The prepared film exhibited good UV-shielding capabilities and rapid biodegradation in soil within eight days, highlighting its eco-friendly nature. The findings demonstrate that C. limon juice can serve as a sustainable, non-toxic, and economical cross-linker for producing starch-based bioplastic films with promising potential for biodegradable packaging applications.
This study aimed to develop, optimize, and characterize intelligent indicator films based on starch and carboxymethyl cellulose incorporated with silver nanoparticles and red cabbage anthocyanin for monitoring seafood freshness. Response surface methodology identified that formulation with 1.35 mg of AgNP and 30% RCE achieved the optimal balance of mechanical, barrier, and antioxidant properties, as determined through significant (p <= 0.0001) linear, quadratic, and two-factor interactions with a high model fit (R 2 = 0.98-0.99). The optimum formulation predicted by desirability analysis revealed that incorporating 1.35 mg of AgNP enhanced tensile strength (TS) by 23.31% while reducing elongation at break and water vapor permeability (WVP) by 25.21% and 18%, respectively. Conversely, the addition of 30% RCE increased total phenolic content (TPC) by 14.60 mg GAE/g and antioxidant activity by 65%, though it reduced transparency by 27% and increased water solubility by 33%. Films containing AgNP showed a 30% slower degradation rate. These intelligent films were successfully used to monitor seafood spoilage, with visible color changes corresponding to freshness based on total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) concentrations and pH levels. The findings highlight the potential of AgNP and RCE-based biopolymer films to extend the shelf life of perishable foods while providing real-time indicators of spoilage.
