Atlantoaxial instability (AAI) predominantly affects toy and miniature breed dogs, causing spinal cord compression and variable neurological deficits. This study aims to report a case of ventral stabilization of C1-C2 with additional fixation of C3 using screws and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) in a 5-month-old, 0.8 kg female Yorkshire Terrier with AAI. The patient presented with non-ambulatory tetraparesis after mild cervical trauma. Neurological examination revealed signs consistent with C1-C5 myelopathy and cervical pain. Radiographs and computed tomography of the cervical spine indicated dorsal displacement of C2 and severe spinal cord compression, confirming the diagnosis. After failure of conservative treatment, ventral stabilization was performed using 8 locked screws distributed between C1 and C3, combined with PMMA. Progressive clinical improvement was observed, with return to ambulation within 7 days and excellent neurological recovery at 165 days, with no complications during 12 months of follow-up. The stabilization technique using multiple screws and PMMA proved effective and safe in this case, enabling excellent neurological recovery even in the presence of severe neurological deficits. The inclusion of C3 in the stabilization process may have provided greater biomechanical resistance and reduced the risk of implant-related complications, representing a potentially relevant surgical approach in very small-sized patients.
The crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) is a widely distributed South American mesocarnivore that frequently inhabits human-modified landscapes, where it may play a role in the transmission of zoonotic pathogens. Leptospirosis is an important but underreported disease in free-ranging wildlife, particularly in South America. This report describes the clinical management of a free-ranging crab-eating raccoon rescued after a road accident in southeastern Brazil, presenting systemic, hepatic, renal, and neurological alterations. Given the epidemiological context and compatible clinical findings, serological testing for Leptospira spp. was performed using the microscopic agglutination test, which revealed a titer of 1:200 for serovar Wolffi. Although the titer was relatively low, it was interpreted as clinically relevant when integrated with laboratory abnormalities and clinical signs, supporting initiation of antimicrobial therapy. The animal received doxycycline and comprehensive supportive care, including analgesia, hepatoprotective treatment, nutritional support via esophageal tube, and management of neurological signs. Progressive clinical and laboratory improvement was observed, allowing tube removal after 10 days and transfer to rehabilitation. No recurrence of clinical signs was noted during a 60-day follow-up. This case highlights the importance of integrating serology, clinical evaluation, and epidemiology for the diagnosis of leptospirosis in wildlife and underscores the relevance of P. cancrivorus to One Health surveillance.
Kidney disease (KD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in dogs; however, epidemiological data remain limited. This study estimated the incidence of KD and characterized chronic kidney disease (CKD) and acute kidney injury (AKI) through an observational study of dogs treated at a small animal hospital. A case-control study was subsequently conducted to identify factors associated with KD. Among 2,393 newly registered dogs in 2023, 91 cases of KD were identified, and an equal number of controls were randomly selected. Adjusted odds ratios were estimated using logistic regression models adjusted for age and body condition score (BCS). The overall annual cumulative incidence of KD was 3.8% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.0-4.6). The incidence of early-stage CKD was 2.5% (95% CI: 1.9-3.2), followed by advanced-stage CKD at 0.9% (95% CI: 0.5-1.3) and AKI at 0.3% (95% CI: 0.1-0.5). Age was a significant risk factor for KD, with dogs aged ≥10 years having higher odds of KD than younger dogs. Dogs with KD were also more likely to have a poor BCS, and this association was strongest in advanced-stage CKD. To our knowledge, this is the first reported epidemiological study from Latin America to estimate the incidence of KD in dogs. The observed association between KD, advanced age, and poor BCS is based on a detailed review of medical records and the use of appropriate paraclinical investigations, which are essential for early diagnosis and timely intervention to influence the course of the disease.
A retrospective case-control study was conducted using the clinical records of dogs treated at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of Uruguay between 2017 and 2022 with a confirmed diagnosis of cutaneous mast cell tumor (MCT). A total of 141 affected dogs were compared with a randomly selected control group of 141 dogs without cutaneous tumors that attended the hospital during the same period. The association between gonadectomy and cutaneous MCT was evaluated by estimating crude and sex- and age-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) using univariate and multivariable logistic regression models. Overall, gonadectomy was associated with lower odds of cutaneous MCT. However, effect modification by sex was detected in the association between gonadectomy and MCT (p-interaction = 0.04). Sex-stratified analyses showed that gonadectomy was significantly associated with lower odds of MCT in males (OR = 0.16, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.06-0.41), whereas the association in females was weaker and not statistically significant (OR = 0.56, 95% CI, 0.25-1.27). In addition, dogs aged ≥7 years had substantially higher odds of MCT than adult dogs aged 2-6 years. These findings suggest that the association between reproductive status and cutaneous MCT is complex and may differ by sex. However, given the observational nature of the case-control design, the results should not be interpreted as evidence of a causal relationship. Further prospective studies, particularly those evaluating the timing of gonadectomy, are warranted.
With the aim of determining the optimal duration of visual male exposure on the reproductive performance of nulliparous guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus), this study evaluated key reproductive indicators from mating to parturition. Sixty 60-day-old females were distributed into three treatments: traditional continuous mating (T0), controlled mating with 14-day prior visual male exposure (T1), and controlled mating with 7-day prior visual male exposure (T2). Results showed that T1 significantly increased the frequency of first estrus between days 6 and 10 (67%; p = .02) compared to T0 and T2 (38%). Additionally, T1 showed the highest frequency of afternoon estrus (42%; p < .05) and a higher rate of estrus repetition (p < .05). Regarding reproductive efficiency, T0 and T2 females exhibited significantly fewer non-productive days (10.5 and 11.3 d, respectively) compared to T1 (17.0 d; p < .01). Conversely, the feed cost per female was lowest in T1 (7.23 PEN), followed by T2 (9.27 PEN) and T0 (10.05 PEN; p < .01). No significant differences were observed in litter size (p = .08) or litter weight (p = .23). In conclusion, while 14 days of visual biostimulation prior to mating optimizes estrus synchronization but increases reproductive failures, a 7-day exposure successfully reduces non-productive days and feed expenditure in nulliparous guinea pigs, improving the economic merit of the intensive system without compromising productive parameters.
The association between Cushing's syndrome (CS) and diabetes mellitus (DM) in cats is rarely reported. Complications related to hypercortisolism and persistent hyperglycemia may occur, which may complicate the control of both endocrinopathies. This report describes the case of a 10-year-old Persian cat diagnosed with CS and DM. The patient presented with polyuria, polydipsia, chronic dry seborrhea on the dorsal region and flanks, and lack of hair regrowth on the abdomen. Through the dexamethasone suppression test (0.1 mg/kg) and the presence of persistent hyperglycemia with elevated fructosamine levels and glycosuria, diagnoses of Cushing's syndrome and DM were established. Treatment was initiated with trilostane (2 mg/kg PO BID) for CS and insulin glargine (2 IU/animal SC BID) for DM, resulting in stabilization of blood glucose, cortisol concentrations, and the patient's clinical condition, although cutaneous fragility persisted for a prolonged period. Diagnostic investigation for hypercortisolism should be considered in cats with DM to allow earlier diagnosis, reduce underdiagnosis, and improve the availability of epidemiological and clinical data on this association. The diagnostic approach and clinical management described may aid veterinarians in recognizing this coexistence and anticipating therapeutic challenges, such as persistent cutaneous fragility despite cortisol control.
A cat with bilateral ureteral obstruction and long-term urolithiasis that had been medically managed for a year was presented to the emergency department of our hospital. Severe azotemia and metabolic acidosis were identified. Ultrasonography and computed tomography supported a diagnosis of ureteral calculi, with no evidence of other underlying abnormalities. During exploratory laparotomy, irreversible renal failure secondary to bilateral ureteral obstruction was suspected, and euthanasia was elected. Histopathological and immunohistochemical examination of the ureters revealed tubulopapillary urothelial carcinoma (transitional cell carcinoma). This case is noteworthy because it represents only the second reported case of feline ureteral transitional cell carcinoma associated with ureteral calculi causing bilateral ureteral obstruction. It also highlights that ureteral calculi may coexist with ureteral transitional cell carcinoma in cats, potentially masking the underlying neoplasm and delaying its diagnosis.
The effectiveness of artificial insemination with frozen semen depends largely on semen quality, which can be influenced by the thawing method. This study evaluated the effect of three field-practical semen thawing methods on bovine sperm motility, viability, and plasma membrane and acrosome integrity at 0 and 2h post-thaw. The treatments were: T1 (water at 37 °C), T2 (axilla at 36.1°C), and T3 (room temperature at 23.4 °C). A total of 42 frozen semen straws was analyzed. Motility was assessed using a CASA system, viability was evaluated with Hoechst/propidium iodide staining, and plasma membrane and acrosome integrity were examined using the hypoosmotic swelling (HOS) test and Coomassie blue (CB) staining, respectively. Statistical analysis included ANOVA and t-tests. At 0h, thawing using a water bath (T1) or the axilla (T2) resulted in higher (P < 0.05) total motility, progressive motility, rapid motility, and number of rapidly motile sperm compared to thawing at room temperature (T3). Thawing using a water bath also resulted in higher (P<0.05) sperm viability and percentage of HOS+/CB+ cells at 0h than thawing with T2 or T3. At 2h, post-thaw, T1 resulted in superior (P<0.05) total motility, progressive motility, rapid motility, and viability compared with T2 and T3 thawing methods. Holding samples from 0 to 2h reduced sperm quality parameters in all three thawing methods. In conclusion, thawing semen in warm water at 37 °C yielded better sperm quality parameters at both 0 and 2h post-thaw than thawing in the axilla or at room temperature.
Decalcification is a critical step in bone and cartilage histology that directly influences tissue preservation and staining quality. This study aimed to establish an efficient decalcification protocol for ovine stifle joint tissues while optimizing their morphological preservation and staining performance. Samples from the distal femoral condyles of four sheep were allocated to three experimental groups according to the decalcification protocol: 2% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 0.1% nitric acid, and a combination of both reagents. Samples were evaluated at different time points for mineral removal, preservation of cellular and tissue architecture, and staining quality using hematoxylin and eosin and Safranin O/Fast Green techniques. Histological preservation was assessed using the O'Driscoll scoring criteria. The 0.1% nitric acid protocol demonstrated the best balance between decalcification efficiency and tissue preservation, achieving satisfactory mineral removal within 48 h while maintaining cartilage and subchondral bone morphology. In contrast, EDTA requires longer decalcification periods (5-7 days), resulting in slower mineral removal and mild, progressive loss of cellular detail over time. The combined EDTA-nitric acid protocol promoted rapid decalcification but caused substantial tissue degradation, reducing histological quality. Histological evaluation confirmed that the preservation of hyaline cartilage architecture, chondrocyte morphology, extracellular matrix staining, and osteochondral organization was superior in the nitric acid group. These findings indicate that 0.1% nitric acid is a reliable and time-efficient protocol for decalcifying ovine osteochondral tissues, enabling adequate histological evaluation while preserving tissue integrity. This study provides a practical methodological reference for the histological processing of ovine joint tissues in experimental and translational research settings.
We aimed to determine the relationships between intestinal mucosal injury (based on diamine oxidase [DAO] concentrations), physiological modulators of intercellular tight junctions, and leaky gut biomarkers (based on zonulin concentrations) in dogs with atopic dermatitis. We previously demonstrated that gut restoration alleviates canine atopic dermatitis (CaD) based on the interaction between the gut microbiome and dermatological diseases, which is referred to as the "gut-skin axis." However, we observed the reverse in this study. This short-term, open-label, non-repeated study involved 30 owned dogs with CaD. Their CaD was clinically subclassified based on their Canine Atopic Dermatitis Extent and Severity Index version 4 (CADESI-04) scoring based on proposed benchmarks for mild (10), moderate (35), and severe (≥60) AD skin lesions]. Clinical interpretation and laboratory examination were composed of epidermal corneometric analytes (epidermal hydration and pH), CADESI-04 scores, and intestinal biomarkers. The DAO concentrations for the mild (≤10; Group I), moderate (≥11-35; Group II), and severe (≥60-180; Group III) groups were 2.1-6, 0.9-5.2, and 0.4-4.1 ng/mL, respectively. The data on the decline in DAO concentrations with disease progression were valuable (p = 0.031). The zonulin concentrations (ng/mL) for Groups I, II, and III were 14.67 ± 2.45, 13.40 ± 4.56, and 10.89 ± 6.49, respectively (p = 0.008). Their epidermal hydration levels for Groups I, II, and III (59.90 ± 17.77, 30.75 ± 14.59, and 17.58 ± 11.71, respectively) were statistically significant. However, their pH values for Groups I, II, and III (5.02 ± 0.64, 4.47 ± 0.35, and 4.66 ± 1.07, respectively) were not. This study highlights the exploration of the gut-brain-skin axis and leaky gut.
Assessing intestinal health in cats with chronic gastrointestinal signs remains challenging. Serum cobalamin concentration is commonly used as a marker of ileal dysfunction, whereas ultrasonography enables morphological evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract. This study investigated the correlation between ultrasonographic ileal wall thickness and serum cobalamin concentrations in healthy cats and cats with chronic gastrointestinal signs. Twelve cats were divided into a symptomatic group (G1, n = 6) and a healthy control group (G2, n = 6) and underwent laboratory testing and abdominal ultrasonography. Mean ileal thickness was slightly greater in G1 (0.22 ± 0.03 cm) than in G2 (0.21 ± 0.02 cm), although the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.48). Serum cobalamin concentrations also did not differ significantly between groups (p = 0.81). Correlation analysis demonstrated a weak, nonsignificant positive correlation in G1 and a moderate, nonsignificant correlation in G2. These findings suggest that ileal thickness alone is not a reliable predictor of serum cobalamin concentration and highlight the need for multifactorial diagnostic approaches and studies with larger sample sizes.
Administering oral medications to companion animals remains a major challenge in veterinary medicine, frequently leading to poor adherence and reduced therapeutic effectiveness. Medicated treats have emerged as a promising strategy to facilitate drug administration by combining active pharmaceutical ingredients with highly palatable food-based matrices. This integrative review critically synthesized the available scientific literature on oral drug delivery systems for dogs and cats, with emphasis on medicated treats, chewable formulations, therapeutic efficacy, safety, stability, and regulatory challenges. A structured search was conducted in PubMed, SciSpace, Consensus, and Google Scholar, using PRISMA-based procedures. After screening and eligibility assessment, 20 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, including one additional eligible study incorporated after peer-review recommendation and assessed according to the same predefined criteria. The reviewed studies indicate that medicated treats and chewable oral formulations may improve treatment adherence, reduce administration-related stress, and maintain acceptable pharmacological performance when appropriate formulation parameters are met. Evidence also suggests that formulation-related factors, such as matrix composition and concomitant administration conditions, may influence bioavailability and product performance. Nevertheless, relevant challenges remain regarding dose uniformity, physicochemical stability, microbiological safety, and regulatory classification. Overall, medicated treats represent a promising alternative drug delivery strategy in veterinary therapeutics, particularly for chronic treatments in companion animals. Further studies are needed to optimize formulation parameters, evaluate long-term safety, and establish clearer regulatory frameworks for these hybrid pharmaceutical-nutritional products.
This study determined whether administration of buserelin acetate (BA), a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist, during timed artificial insemination (TAI) improves pregnancy per AI (P/AI) of dairy cows inseminated with sexed semen. A total of 116 Girolando cows from three commercial dairy farms were randomly assigned to two treatment groups: Buserelin Group (BG; n = 58) that received 10 µg BA during AI, and Control Group (CG; n = 58) that did not receive an ovulation inducer. All animals were subjected to a standard ovulation-synchronization protocol, with AI performed 48 h after removing the progesterone device. Cyclicity status at the beginning of the protocol and preovulatory follicle (POF) diameter were included as covariates in statistical analysis. No significant difference in P/AI was observed between treatments (22.4% in BG vs. 13.8% in CG; P = 0.11). Exploratory subgroup analyses indicated a numerical tendency toward relatively high P/AI in anestrous cows treated with BA at the beginning of the protocol. Additionally, cows in BG with a POF < 13 mm showed numerically greater P/AI than did those with POF ≥ 13 mm. Overall, BA administration during AI did not significantly improve P/AI in dairy cows impregnated with sexed semen. The subgroup findings should be cautiously interpreted as the study was not specifically designed or powered for these comparisons. Further studies with relatively large populations are warranted to confirm these potential associations.
The use of living animals in education remains a topic of debate, particularly in health and veterinary sciences. While some authors justify animal experimentation as essential for scientific advancement and practical learning, others question its ethical implications and advocate for alternative teaching methods. This study aimed to explore veterinary students' reflections on the use of living animals in physiology teaching through the development of functional didactic biomodels simulating physiological processes originally identified through experimental animal procedures.The study was conducted at two universities in Bogotá, Colombia, during a physiology course over one academic year. Initially, students participated in discussions addressing the history of animal experimentation and the major physiological discoveries obtained through invasive procedures involving animals. Subsequently, students developed three-dimensional didactic biomodels representing physiological mechanisms previously investigated through animal experimentation. At the end of the activity, students participated in open-ended experiential feedback sessions regarding the possibility of using living animals for educational purposes.The findings demonstrated heterogeneous perspectives among participants, ranging from acceptance to rejection of the practice. Some students opposed the use of animals based on ethical concerns and animal welfare principles, emphasizing the importance of alternative teaching approaches. Others recognized the educational value of alternative methods capable of replacing animal use. In contrast, some participants supported the use of living animals, arguing that direct contact with biological material provides a unique and impactful learning experience and may facilitate the integration of theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as stimulate future scientific research.
Canine obesity is a multifactorial nutritional disorder characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue with systemic health consequences. However, the cardiovascular effects of obesity in dogs have not been completely characterized. This study aimed to evaluate the clinical, electrocardiographic, and echocardiographic parameters of dogs with normal body condition, overweight, and obesity. Thirty client-owned dogs were divided into three groups of ten: Group 1 (G1, body condition score [BCS] 4-5/9), Group 2 (G2, overweight, BCS 6-7/9), and Group 3 (G3, obese, BCS 8-9/9). All animals underwent physical examination, electrocardiography, and echocardiography, and their canine body mass index and thoracic-to-abdominal circumference ratio were measured. Exercise intolerance and dyspnea were significantly more frequent in G3 (90% and 70%) than in G1 (20% and 10%) and G2 (60% and 10%) (p<0.05). The P-wave (p = 0.030) and QRS (p = 0.049) durations increased progressively from G1 to G3. The left atrial diameter (p = 0.010) and left atrium-to-aortic root ratio (p = 0.011) were significantly greater for G3, and mitral valve abnormalities were more prevalent in obese dogs (p = 0.023). The thoracic-to-abdominal circumference ratio was significantly lower in G2 and G3 (p = 0.003), reflecting abdominal fat redistribution. No significant differences were found in the systolic or conventional diastolic function indices. These findings indicate that obesity in dogs is associated with early cardiovascular alterations, morphometric changes, electrocardiographic conduction delays, and left atrial remodeling in the absence of overt cardiac dysfunction. This underscores the importance of routine cardiovascular monitoring in overweight and obese canine patients.
The following report presents the results of clinical, pathological and, histopathological analyses of two individuals of Crax alberti, a critically endangered species. One individual was diagnosed with cholangiocellular carcinoma with concurrent respiratory involvement, while the other presented pneumonia associated with Mycoplasma spp., with secondary renal involvement. In captive conditions, increased longevity and close contact between individuals may favor the occurrence of infectious and neoplastic conditions, as observed in these cases.
Feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS) is characterized by persistent oral inflammation, leading to severe pain, hyporexia, weight loss, and reduced well-being. Affected cats exhibit altered levels of inflammatory mediators; however, most diagnostic procedures require administration of anesthesia, highlighting the need for alternative monitoring approaches. This prospective exploratory pilot study aimed to compare two simple and rapid saliva collection methods-pipetting and absorbent paper points-used for assessing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in cats. Saliva samples were obtained from 86 cats that were initially evaluated and classified into three groups: FCGS (n=22), other oral inflammatory conditions (OOIC) (n=27), and controls without oral inflammation (n=37); 25 of the control animals were subsequently excluded from the analysis. Compared with pipetting, absorbent paper points were better tolerated by cats with oral inflammation. In the samples collected by pipetting, the mean IL-6 concentration was higher in the FCGS group (473.10 pg/mL) than in the control group (12.78 pg/mL). A similar pattern was observed in samples collected using absorbent paper points; IL-6 levels were highest in the FCGS group (170.90 pg/mL), followed by the OOIC (6.05 pg/mL) and control (1.50 pg/mL) groups. PGE2 levels were also highest in the FCGS group (647.52 pg/mL), followed by the control group (182.13 pg/mL) and the OOIC group (111.40 pg/mL). These findings should be interpreted in light of the pilot design, sample exclusions, and absence of a diagnostic reference standard. Nonetheless, salivary assessment appears to be a feasible and promising noninvasive approach for monitoring oral inflammation in cats with FCGS.
Ocular and periocular neoplasms in cattle are of great clinical and economic significance, with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) being the most prevalent. The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence of neoplasms in these regions in cattle from the Agreste region of Pernambuco by evaluating 45 cases (25 retrospective and 20 prospective), including clinical, epidemiological, and morphological data. SCC was the most frequent tumor (n = 43), with one case of papilloma also observed. In addition, one ocular dermoid, a non-neoplastic lesion, was identified. SCC was mainly located in the third eyelid, with lesions smaller than 3 cm, exclusively affecting adult females of dairy breeds. Microscopically, according to a multifactorial classification system, grade 1 tumors were predominant. The presence of multinucleated and basal cells was noted in neoplasms with relatively aggressive biological behavior. In the prospective cases, clinical progression could be followed, with records of recurrence and economic losses for farmers. Neoplasms larger than 3 cm were associated with relatively poor biological behavior, suggesting the importance of early clinical diagnosis for prognosis. The results reinforce the relevance of incorporating epidemiological, clinical, and morphological factors into lesion staging, aiming to improve the grading system used in this study for application to ocular carcinomas in cattle.
The ''barrier effect'' is caused by the intense construction of highways in the present day. It's a phenomenon that modifies the dynamics of circulation and disperses animal communities, isolating them on both sides of the highways and reducing the gene flow of the population. In order to evaluate its impact, over a period of two years, the monitoring of the wild fauna run over on a federal highway in Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was carried out. Samples of animals found dead were identified and sown on mycological culture media, and the fungi were later identified. The three most frequently found animal species were, respectively: bat (Ordem Chiroptera), opossum (Didelphis aurita), and capybara (Hidrochoerus hidrochaeris). A great diversity of fungi was found in all the 55 samples of cadaveric remains from the carcasses found throughout the period - different species belonging to more than 10 fungal genera, including Mucor sp. and Rhyzopus sp. (belonging to the Order Mucorales), Aspergillus sp., Acremonium sp., Cladosporium sp. and Fusarium sp. (These last 4 belong to the phylum Ascomycota). This study solidifies the understanding about the impacts caused by anthropic expansion on Brazilian fauna and the succession of mycoobiota in cadaveric decomposition.
Stomoxys calcitrans is a hematophagous dipteran known as a "stable fly", capable of parasitizing several animal species. The use of biological agents is an alternative for controlling S. calcitrans, with entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) being both resistant and virulent. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of infection by EPNs subjected to spraying pressure on S. calcitrans larvae in sugarcane straw and vinasse under environmental conditions. Groups of 20 larvae of the stable fly were placed in plastic containers containing one kilogram of autoclaved soil and 200 g of sugarcane straw each. Subsequently, 200 JIs/larvae were sprayed onto the trays with larvae, and emergence traps were placed on the containers. In the control group, there were no EPNs; only vinasse was used. The experiment had three replicates and was monitored daily for 15 days. It was observed that the EPN Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 showed a mortality rate of 33.3%, which was not statistically different from that of the control group (38.3%). The EPNs H. indica LPP30 and H. baujardi LPP7 caused mortality rates of 81.7% and 73.3%, respectively; both being higher than H. bacteriophora HP88 and the control group, but equal to each other under these conditions. It is concluded that H. indica LPP30 and H. baujardi LPP7 were effective against stable fly larvae under environmental conditions, whereas H. bacteriophora HP88 does not demonstrate similar efficacy.
