While studies of attitudes toward capital punishment abound, there is little research on racial/ethnic differences in trends in support for the death penalty in the United States. To fill this lacuna, this study examines racial/ethnic differentials in trends in support for the death penalty among Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics in the U.S. in the twenty first century, utilizing data from the pooled General Social Surveys 2000-2022. The results of trend analysis and logistic regression analyses reveal declining trends at varying levels among most racial/ethnic groups but a rising trend with fluctuations among Blacks in support for the death penalty. We also identify similarities and differences in the determinants of support for the death penalty across these racial or ethnic groups.
Racial and ethnic disparities in traffic stop outcomes remain a persistent issue in U.S. policing. There is a link between a driver's race and gender, with male Black and Latino drivers being arrested at higher rates than white drivers. Literature suggests time of day influences arrest outcomes. This study examines whether racial and ethnic disparities in arrest outcomes in traffic stops vary by time of day in Travis County, Texas. Data from Austin's Racial Profiling Dataset were analyzed using a binomial logistic regression (n = 44,316). Black (OR = 3.17) and Latine drivers (OR = 2.28) had higher odds of arrest compared to white drivers0. A race and ethnicity and nighttime interaction showed disparities differed under reduced visibility. Findings highlight traffic stops and subsequent arrest as a racial equity issue.
Research has documented implicit racial bias in the U.S. justice system. This study examined whether perceived race shapes judgments of recidivism and sentencing severity. A total of 201 participants read an identical offense description attributed to either Darnell Johnson (a Black-sounding name) or Scott Johnson (a White-sounding name) and evaluated the case. Participants perceived the Black defendant as more likely to reoffend and deserving of harsher punishment. Sentencing disparities were mediated by perceived recidivism risk, such that higher risk judgments predicted harsher sentences. Notably, greater awareness of racial discrimination was associated with stronger perceptions that the Black defendant was more prone to reoffend. Findings highlight the persistence of racial bias in legal judgments and its implications for sentencing decisions.
This study presents survey data on perceptions of the police collected from a convenience sample of 208 Hispanic college students residing in a predominantly Hispanic community situated near the U.S.-Mexico border. Regression analyses underscore the complexity of the relationship between socioeconomic status and attitudes toward the police among young Hispanic adults. Whereas household income did not significantly impact satisfaction with the police, paternal educational attainment had a positive impact on perceptions of the police, while maternal educational attainment had the opposite effect. Additionally, the students' genders and preferences for punitive crime control measures were significantly correlated with their confidence in the police, but (contrary to prior research) the students' political preferences were not. The implications of these findings are discussed.
This study introduces the "White Supremacy to Anti-Immigrant Violence Pathway" (WAVP) as a conceptual framework for examining how the enduring myth of white supremacy-rooted in colonization, slavery, and the displacement of Indigenous peoples-continues to shape American institutions and produce harm and violence against immigrants of Color. The WAVP traces the reproduction of racialized harm across macro, meso, and micro levels, showing how these layers interact in cyclical and mutually reinforcing ways. The work illustrates aspects of the WAVP by drawing on findings from a case study of the Constitutional Sheriffs Movement, which highlights sheriffs' anti-immigrant narratives. This work offers new insight into the literature on whiteness, racialized violence, and immigration, and urges greater attention to the racialized structures embedded in law enforcement.
This study examines the bidirectional relationship between school suspensions and arrests, extending research on the school-to-prison pipeline beyond the suspension-to-arrest pathway. Using NLSY97 data and Wooldridge Dynamic Random Effects Probit models with lagged dependent variables, we account for students' prior disciplinary and justice histories. Results show that while single fluctuations reduce later risks, chronic exposure escalates them. Stratified analyses reveal racial variation: chronic suspensions predict arrests for Black and White youth, immediate suspensions heighten arrest risk for Hispanic youth, and chronic arrests most strongly predict suspensions for White youth. These findings highlight arrests as consequential for shaping school discipline and underscore the need for dynamic, longitudinal approaches to inform equitable policy and interventions.
Case-processing of low-level offenses is an important yet understudied aspect of criminal justice. These offenses can have significant consequences for justice-involved individuals, often serving as entry points into the criminal-legal system. As "gatekeepers" to the justice system, prosecutors play an integral role in this process. As such, it is important to understand prosecutorial discretion within this context. The current study examines prosecutorial decision-making among a unique category of low-level offenses, vice crimes. Specifically, this study examines prosecutors' decisions to dismiss charges in prostitution cases, highlighting the influence of the sellers' race and gender. Results suggest significant differences exist in dismissal decisions for White, Black, Asian, and Latina women charged with prostitution, highlighting the relative disadvantage experienced between racial/ethnic minority women.
Although White men still make up a majority of law enforcement officers in the United States, explicit efforts to diversify the workforce have been effective at increasing the proportion of women, racial minorities and LGBTQ+ identified individuals. Drawing on the frameworks of representative bureaucracy, self-legitimacy and White backlash, this study seeks to understand the potential negative reactions to increased heterogeneity, specifically when people of color become chief law enforcement executives. We use LEMAS data from 2007, 2013, 2016, and 2020 to analyze whether leadership became more diverse as well as changes in agencies' racial makeup. The data demonstrated an increase in the relative percentage of non-White executives. The agencies involved in a transition during this time experienced unique shifts in officer demographics.
Police militarization in Canada is largely framed as a race-neutral crime control strategy in the Canadian literature Much of the existing research omits race as an analytical category and fails to critically engage with how the socially constructed threat of racialized criminality is foundational to legitimizing police militarization. This article offers the first enumeration of racial disproportionality and disparity in use of force incidents involving tactical units. This article analyzes over 1100 use of force reports obtained from seven municipal police services in southern Ontario. The results demonstrate the racially disproportionate impact of police militarization on the Black community, who are overrepresented in use of force incidents across all municipalities in comparison to their overall proportion of the population. The results are further contextualized through applying critical race theory and Wacquant's work on urban marginality and precarity. The findings challenge the race-neutral portrayal of tactical units, and police militarization, laying the groundwork for more substantive empirical analyses.
Black girls are disproportionately represented in the juvenile justice system, yet standard risk assessments seldom capture the intersecting effects of race, gender, trauma, and structural disadvantage. This study tests whether cumulative scores from the Ohio Youth Assessment System Disposition Tool accurately reflect the needs of justice-involved Black girls. Using data from 485 youth, a two-step cluster analysis identified four distinct risk typologies, from low-risk net widening to high-risk profiles shaped by family instability, school exclusion, peer exposure, and behavioral health needs. Cluster membership significantly predicted recidivism and, in some cases, performed better than cumulative scores. Findings highlight the need for culturally responsive assessment practices, targeted intervention dosage, and coordinated multisystem supports to improve equity and outcomes.
This hate crimes study uses a structural violence framework and Cox proportional hazards regression to examine time to arrest for perpetrators. The analysis focuses on incidents that occurred between 2019 and 2024 in New York City. Data were retrieved from the NYC Open Data portal and represent police-reported hate crimes. Results reveal that arrests take longer for felonies, assaults, and cases involving Asian and Jewish victims, while cases involving Muslim and White victims tend to be resolved more quickly. Borough-level differences were less predictive than offense type or victim identity. The study highlights disparities in law enforcement response, suggesting that systemic biases may shape justice outcomes. Additionally, the lower number of hate crimes reported by Hispanics could suggest fear of police. These findings have significant implications for public health, equity, and trust in institutions tasked with addressing hate violence.
Research on girls in gangs and the consequences of their involvement has largely been based on studies conducted in developed countries, with limited attention paid to the Caribbean context. This makes it challenging to draw conclusions or generalize findings to Caribbean nations and other underrepresented regions. The present study seeks to contribute by examining gender differences among school-attending gang members in nine English-speaking Caribbean nations: Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Dominica, Grenada, Trinidad, and Tobago, and Guyana. Data were collected between 2014 and 2017 from 17,542 students in 306 schools, of which 4,189 students self-reported gang involvement. We examine gender differences in methods for joining, the likelihood of engaging in crime, as well as experiences with victimization. We further look at gender differences in factors influencing the likelihood of leaving the gang. Boys' self-reported gang involvement was significantly higher than girls', though girls' involvement was relatively high (35.8% vs 21.8%, respectively). Descriptive analyses indicated gender differences in methods of joining and reasons and methods for leaving a gang. Regression analysis revealed gender differences in self-reported delinquent behaviors and experiences of violent victimization. We conclude with a discussion of our findings and their implications for research, policy, and programming.
Drawing from critical ethnography and semi-structured interviews with sixteen Black and Latino male gang members from the West and East Coasts, this study examines participants' lived experiences in gangs. Using thematic analysis, findings highlight experiences with gang violence, perceptions of gangs and inequality, and encounters with the criminal justice system. This study introduces the theory of Legitimized Justice Oppression (LJO), which posits that the criminal justice system legitimizes harsh, discriminatory responses by targeting stigmatized communities under the guise of public safety, thereby reinforcing systemic inequalities. The study emphasizes the need for policies addressing poverty, strengthening social institutions, and moving beyond punitive law enforcement toward comprehensive, community-centered approaches.
Repatriation to the country of origin is one of the most sought-after durable solutions to the global refugee crisis, yet voluntary return is often fraught with complexities. Integration is the least desired solution, especially by overburdened host communities, but often preferred by refugees. Among the factors highlighted by previous studies behind refugee choices on solutions, one determinant was the experience of violence during displacement. Previous research suggested that refugee men who endured violence longer before fleeing were more likely to prefer returning compared to women and children, who were often forced to flee earlier than men. This idea may undermine the extreme forms of sexual and gender-based violence women and girls experience during forced displacement and how that plays a role in their decisions. Additionally, contextual factors, such as financial stability, access to services within the host community, and relationship between refugees and host community, may also be associated with refugee gender and influence their choices. No study thus far has addressed how gendered experiences of violence, and their extremities affect refugee preferences. The current study addressed this gap and explored how the nature and extent of violence, and other contextual factors influenced repatriation decisions of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The data was collected through surveys (N = 184) on both Rohingya men and women, as well as focus group sessions (N = 31) with a group of Rohingya women. The findings suggest that both violence experienced by Rohingya men and women, and their decisions to repatriate or integrate into Bangladesh are gendered in nature, complex and intertwined with various contextual factors.
The effect of racial threat on racial disparities in sentencing has yielded inconsistent findings. One explanation involves the widespread use of the percentage of the Black population to measure racial threat, which assumes that decision-makers respond to general demographic patterns. However, it is more plausible that prosecutors are influenced by the racial composition of their specific caseloads. A multilevel analysis using the percent of Black drug defendants, rather than an overall racial composition population measure, fails to support racial threat theory or the contact hypothesis. Nonetheless, Black drug defendants remain significantly more likely than similarly situated White defendants to receive incarcerative sentences, indicating that racial disparities persist even when alternative threat measures are used when examining large urban U.S. counties.
The Caribbean is considered one of the most violent regions in the world, characterized by alarmingly high homicide rates and widespread intimate partner violence (IPV). As such, crime remains a critical focus in discussions surrounding both criminal justice and public health. This integrative literature review analyzes empirical studies from 2012 to 2022 across seven Caribbean countries to explore patterns of IPV, particularly emphasizing economic and emotional abuse, controlling behaviors, and power dynamics. Accordingly, this review addresses the central question: "How do economic dependence, control, and power dynamics influence intimate partner violence in the Caribbean community?" Women who are economically dependent face significant obstacles to leaving abusive relationships, compounded by cultural stigma, a lack of financial autonomy, and inadequate support systems. Structural challenges such as limited educational opportunities, high unemployment rates, and insufficient mental health services further exacerbate these issues. Guided by a Caribbean feminist perspective and Biderman's Chart of Coercion, this review identifies gaps in the literature, including the limited availability of longitudinal data and the underrepresentation of male victims, and advocates for culturally informed policy reforms, expanded research, and gender-sensitive community interventions.
This study on female delinquents in Jamaica critically examines how trauma, structural instability, and institutional neglect contribute to girls' involvement in the justice system. Grounded in feminist criminology and Caribbean feminist thought, it reframes girl delinquency as a survival response to entrenched emotional neglect, abuse, and marginalization. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with five formerly incarcerated girls and ten juvenile justice practitioners and analyzed thematically. The findings revealed recurring patterns that underscored systemic failures, including structural breakdown and unmet emotional needs, punitive institutional climates and emotional neglect in custody, the victim-offender continuum, the criminalization of emotion and remorse, intergenerational deficits and emotional absence, institutional neglect and disempowerment, gendered hostility within custodial settings, the criminalization of survival and distress, compounding trauma through systemic rejection, and limited pathways toward trauma-informed and gender-responsive interventions. Collectively, these themes demonstrate that rather than rehabilitating, system contact often magnifies harm by criminalizing trauma, neglecting emotional recovery, and reinforcing cycles of victimization. The findings underscore the urgent need for culturally grounded, trauma-informed, and gender-responsive approaches that prioritize prevention, emotional care, and community-based alternatives to incarceration in Jamaica.
