Purpose Subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) often presents with nonspecific symptoms that overlap with neurodevelopmental challenges. This study investigated the relationship between SCH and neuropsychological manifestations in overweight/obese youth with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), comparing outcomes against a control group with normal body mass index (BMI). Methods Thirty-two adolescents (16–18 years) with a BMI ≥ 25 were enrolled. The study group (n = 16) comprised participants with elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), while the control group (n = 16) had normal TSH levels. DCD was confirmed via the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP-SF). Assessment tools included the Windows-based Word Memory Test (WMT), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV), Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II (WIAT-II) for reading, and Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-II (WRAML-II). Physical activity was monitored using the PAQ-A questionnaire and paedometry. Data were analysed using Spearman correlation and regression. Results The control group demonstrated significantly superior cognitive and motor performance compared to the study group. While both groups averaged fewer than 5,000 steps/day, the study group’s mean physical activity was markedly lower. A moderate-to-strong negative monotonic correlation was identified between plasma TSH levels and physical activity (rs = –0.66) within the study group. Conclusions While motor and cognitive impairments characterise DCD, remarkable deterioration in these domains – especially when coupled with increased BMI – strongly correlates with elevated TSH. This link suggests that subclinical hypothyroidism may exacerbate DCD manifestations, highlighting the necessity for biochemical screening and modified treatment approaches in managing overweight adolescents with coordination disorders.
Purpose This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the influence of menstrual cycle (MC) phases on physical fitness components in eumenorrhoeic women to inform training practices. Methods Studies including eumenorrhoeic women aged ≥ 18 years comparing different MC phases, with the early follicular phase as reference, were included. Data were extracted for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), anaerobic power, knee extensor and flexor strength, sprint, and jumping performance. Risk of bias was assessed using an adapted RoB 2.0 tool. Standardised mean differences were meta-analysed using a random-effects model; heterogeneity and publication bias were evaluated. Meta-regression assessed MC phase as a moderator. Results From 15,423 records screened, 91 studies met the inclusion criteria, and 24 were included in the meta-analysis. VO2max was significantly lower during the early follicular phase compared to other phases [SMD = –0.28, 95% CI (–0.40, –0.15)]. Sprint time was higher (worse) in the early follicular phase versus the ovulatory and late follicular phases [SMD = 0.25, 95% CI (0.02, 0.48)]. No consistent significant differences were found for anaerobic power, knee strength, or jumping performance. Heterogeneity varied across outcomes; some strength analyses required the exclusion of influential studies. MC phase was not a significant moderator for any outcome. The certainty of evidence was low for all outcomes. Conclusions These findings suggest VO2max and sprint performance may decrease during the early follicular phase, but conclusions are limited due to low evidence certainty. Other fitness components showed no consistent influence from MC phases.
Purpose The present study aimed to investigate the external and internal load responses based on the moment in the season, types of training, and positions of an elite women’s volleyball team. Methods This descriptive longitudinal study investigated training load responses in 14 female athletes from an elite Brazilian volleyball team over a 40-week period, consisting of a 20-week preparatory phase and a 20-week competitive phase. External load was measured with G-VERT Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), while internal load was assessed using the session-RPE method and the Borg CR-10 scale. Data were analysed using a two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni correction and a Tukey HSD post hoc test. Results The pre-competition period had significantly higher training loads than the competition period. We found that jump-heavy training sessions induced greater internal and external loads for attackers and setters (p < 0.001), whereas líberos were uniquely more challenged by low-jump training sessions (p < 0.001). When comparing training sessions and games, games consistently showed higher internal and external loads. Position-specific analysis revealed that middle blockers and setters experienced higher external loads, while líberos had significantly higher internal loads. Conclusions We conclude that the season period, training type, and player position are critical variables influencing training load responses. These findings highlight the specific physiological and tactical demands on líberos and middle blockers, who respond differently from other positions.
Purpose Biomechanical characteristics and asymmetries are key factors in optimising performance among young female football players. This study aimed to characterise angular kinematics and asymmetries of the upper and lower limbs during the execution of four technical skills: heading, kicking, passing, and dribbling. Methods Twenty-two female athletes from the U15 and U17 age groups participated in the study. Three-dimensional kinematic data were collected using the Vicon® system to analyse body angles, and inter-limb asymmetries were quantified using the normalised symmetry index (NSI). Results Significant differences were observed in ankle range of motion during heading (p = 0.00; r = 0.63) and in pelvic movement during passing (p = 0.01; r = 0.52), both showing large effect sizes and greater amplitude in the non-dominant limb. Across all analysed skills, there was a general tendency to favour the dominant side, particularly in the ankle and pelvis joints. Asymmetry values stayed within the 10–15% range frequently documented in previous studies. Conclusions These results emphasise measurable asymmetries in young female football players and enhance the current understanding of biomechanical performance. These findings further support the development of targeted interventions and specialised training strategies designed to correct imbalances and enhance technical skills.
Purpose The study aimed to investigate the acute effects of exercise-induced fatigue on jump and jump-based inter-limb asymmetry in Wushu Sanda athletes. Methods Fourteen national-level Wushu Sanda athletes (9 males, 5 females; 18–21 years) completed a pre–post within-subjects experimental design. Participants performed a series of bilateral and unilateral jumps before and after a standardised fatigue protocol that mimicked Wushu match demands. Countermovement jump (CMJ) and standing broad jump (SBJ) [as slow stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)], drop jump (DJ; as fast SSC), and triple hop for horizontal power were assessed. Inter-limb asymmetry was calculated using performance differentials. Paired t-tests and Hedges’ g were applied to analyse changes. Results Significant post-fatigue reductions were observed in bilateral CMJ height (p < 0.001, g = 0.43), DJ reactive strength index (p = 0.003, g = 0.36), and SBJ distance (p = 0.011, g = 0.51). Unilateral CMJ height decreased significantly for both legs (p = 0.001–0.002, g = 0.35–0.36) while unilateral SBJ distance decreased only for the left leg (p = 0.034, g = 0.47). No significant changes were found in DJ ground contact time or inter-limb asymmetry across CMJ, SBJ, and triple-hop tests (all p > 0.05). Conclusions The fatigue protocol elicited acute neuromuscular fatigue, evidenced by reduced jump performance. However, inter-limb asymmetry remained unaffected, likely due to uniform fatigue across the limbs. These findings suggest that while fatigue impairs jump performance in Wushu athletes, it does not significantly alter inter-limb asymmetry under the given protocol.
Stress fractures are prevalent among female athletes, particularly in disciplines that emphasise leanness and endurance, due to the combined effects of low energy availability (LEA) and menstrual dysfunction. These factors compromise bone health and significantly elevate fracture risk, forming the core of the Female Athlete Triad and the broader Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) framework. This review explores the physiological mechanisms linking LEA and menstrual irregularities to impaired bone remodelling and increased stress fracture risk, drawing on recent literature from 2015 to 2024. LEA suppresses the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, leading to reduced oestrogen levels and disrupted bone metabolism, while menstrual dysfunction and low bone mineral density further heighten vulnerability to fractures. Diagnostic tools such as the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) and RED-S Clinical Assessment Tool (CAT), along with targeted nutritional and training interventions, offer effective prevention strategies. Ultimately, early identification and correction of LEA and menstrual disturbances through a multidisciplinary approach are crucial for preventing stress fractures and ensuring long-term skeletal health and athletic performance.
There are numerous fitness monitoring devices widely available to the public and athletes. However, surprisingly, there is no adequate existing international standard for these devices. Despite this, researchers have significantly developed non-invasive fitness monitoring methods, which are now incorporated into commercially available devices. This review focuses on observing research findings from the past decade that relate to athlete fitness parameters, physiological indicators, and non-invasive monitoring techniques, specifically near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Conducted using a schematic literature review methodology, this review aims to provide end-users with an understanding of the complexity and reliability of non-invasive fitness monitoring devices.
Purpose To analyse the association between training external load [volume (TV) and intensity (TI)] and match external load intensity (MI) in professional male soccer players. Methods The sample comprised 16 soccer players from one professional soccer team in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil League Serie A). The inclusion criteria only considered microcycles with one game, including soccer players who played at least 60 min. Six microcycles were analysed. External load was monitored using a portable 5-Hz global positioning system during training and matches, and the following variables were analysed: TD – total distance travelled in match; D20 – distance travelled between 14 and 20 km/h; HIR – high-intensity running travelled > 20 km/h; NS – number of sprints > 24 km/h; ACC – number of accelerations > 3 m/s2; DC – number of decelerations < –3 m/s2. Repeated-measures correlation coefficients were applied. Results A moderate negative correlation was found between DTTV and NSMI, and between NSTV with HIRMI, ACCMI, DCMI and D20MI, and a moderate positive correlation was found between D20TV and D20MI. A moderate negative correlation was found between DTTI and NSMI, between NSTI with HIRMI, DCMI and D20MI, and between ACCTI and ACCMI. A moderate positive correlation was found between NSTI and NSMI, and between D20TI with DTMI and D20MI. Lastly, a strong negative correlation was found between NSTI and ACCMI. Conclusions There are positive and negative correlations between external load variables of different magnitudes. This contribution addresses the limited evidence available on the correspondence between training and competition demands, adding new insights into load management in elite soccer.
Purpose The proposal to eliminate body weight (BW) subcategories in senior rowing at the 2028 Olympic Games may impact smaller-scale competitions, particularly in the junior category, favouring heavier athletes due to the contribution of BW to rowing biomechanics. Aim: To examine whether BW subcategories can influence performance in junior rowers. Methods In this cross-sectional study, the National Rower Evaluation System data set was assessed and data from 235 rowing athletes (171 males and 64 females) in the under-seventeen and under-nineteen categories were analysed comparing anaerobic and aerobic power, strength and endurance within the BW subcategories (cut-off points for defining the subcategories: lightweight – male ≤ 72.5 kg, female ≤ 59 kg; heavyweight – male > 72.5 kg, female > 59 kg). Sprint speed (100-m/500-m) and endurance performance in competition distances (2000-m/6000-m) were evaluated using rowing ergometry. Muscle strength in bench-row (BR), bench-press (BP), squat, and deadlift was determined by one-repetition maximum (1RM). Results At 100 m, higher BW and BR strength improved performance in both sexes. Lightweight athletes were 30.5% slower than heavyweight counterparts. At 500 m, BW, BR strength, and squat strength significantly influenced time in both sexes; however, female athletes performed 9.2% slower than males. At 2000-m, only the weight subcategory and its interaction with sex were significant, favouring heavyweight male rowers. No relevant associations were found at 6000-m. Conclusions Body weight, upper-body pulling strength (bench row), and lower-body strength (squat) influence performance in short- and middle-distance events, regardless of sex. The advantage of heavier and stronger athletes does not persist over longer distances.
Purpose The study examined whether socioeconomic status (SES) and baseline leisure-time physical activity moderate the health effects of high-intensity interval-based interventions delivered during regular physical education lessons in adolescents. Methods Either high-intensity interval training (HIIT) or high-intensity plyometric training (HIPT) during physical education classes over eight weeks, each with a control group. A total of 307 adolescents completed assessments at baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up. Outcomes included body fat percentage, systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP), and cardiorespiratory fitness expressed as VO2max. Socioeconomic status was assessed using the Family Affluence Scale, and baseline physical activity was evaluated via the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Results In the HIIT intervention, significant reductions were observed in body fat percentage (β = –1.40, p < 0.001) and SBP (β = –2.49 mm Hg, p = 0.002), along with a significant increase in VO2max (β = +2.94 ml · kg–1 · min–1, p < 0.001) compared with the control group. No significant effect was found for DBP (p = 0.603). In the HIPT intervention, body fat percentage (β = –1.97, p < 0.001) and SBP (β = –3.37 mm Hg, p < 0.001) were significantly reduced, whereas changes in DBP (p = 0.078) and VO2max (p = 0.298) were not statistically significant. Across both schools, neither socioeconomic status nor baseline physical activity moderated intervention effects for any outcome (all interactions p > 0.05). Baseline values of the respective outcomes were the strongest predictors of post-intervention results (all p < 0.001). Conclusions Both high-intensity physical education interventions improve selected health indicators in adolescents independently of socioeconomic status and baseline physical activity, supporting their use as equitable, population-level public health strategies.
Purpose Investigate the effects of 8 weeks of PEMF on musclethickness (MT) of the proximal (RF30%) and mid (RF50%) rectus femoris, and mid vastus lateralis (VL50%), as well as on maximal strength (1RM) and strength endurance (60%1RM) in untrained, compared to resistance training (RT). Methods This is a chronic, randomised, and parallel experimental trial. Eighteen untrained individuals (13 women) were randomly assigned to PEMF (n = 10; 22.9 ± 2.4 years) or bilateral leg extension (EXT, n = 8; 23.2 ± 3.9 years), 3×/week (8 weeks) training. PEMF involved 30-min sessions with magnetic flux densities ranging from 2.8 to 7.0 teslas, with applicators placed over the RF and VL. The EXT group completed 3 sets of bilateral knee extensions at 8–12RM with one-minute rest. Assessments included 1RM and 60%1RM unilateral knee extensions and MT via ultrasound on the legs. Results RF30% MT increased post-intervention (p = 0.006), with no group differences (p = 0.570). No changes were found in the left RF30% or RF50% of either leg. An increase in VL50% MT was observed in the left leg (p = 0.032). Wilcoxon revealed 1RM gains in both legs for PEMF (right: p = 0.012; left: p = 0.035) and EXT (right: p = 0.034; left: p = 0.018). There were no differences between groups in 1RM. Both groups also showed improvements in 60%1RM (p = 0.011; p = 0.018), with no between-group differences (p = 0.392; p = 0.858). Conclusions The present study offers preliminary evidence that continuous PEMF application, even in the absence of mechanical overload, can elicit improvements in muscle morphology, maximal strength, and muscular endurance in untrained individuals.
Purpose This study aimed to examine the association between bilateral lower-limb flexibility asymmetries and both vertical and horizontal jump performance in adolescent football players. Methods Adolescent male football players (n = 20; age, 16.4 ± 0.68 years) voluntarily participated. Bilateral flexibility was assessed using a manual goniometer, while jump performance was evaluated through countermovement jump and standing long jump tests. Pearson correlation and regression analyses were conducted to explore the relationships and explain the variance. Results Significant negative correlations were observed between flexibility asymmetries and countermovement jump performance for the hamstrings (r = –0.624, p = 0.003), quadriceps (r = –0.652, p = 0.002), and plantarflexors (r = –0.608, p = 0.004). Standing long jump performance was negatively correlated with quadriceps (r = –0.530, p = 0.016), plantarflexor (r = –0.518, p = 0.019), and hamstring (r = –0.477, p = 0.034) flexibility asymmetries. Regression analyses revealed that asymmetries in hamstrings, quadriceps, and plantarflexors significantly predicted both vertical (r2 = 0.370–0.425) and horizontal (r2 = 0.227–0.281) jump performance. Conclusions Bilateral lower-limb flexibility asymmetries were negatively associated with vertical and horizontal jump performance. These findings highlight the potential relevance of monitoring flexibility asymmetries in youth football training contexts.
Purpose Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) is a phenomenon that can improve short-term performance in combat sports like judo. However, the optimal rest interval between conditioning activities and judo performance has not been determined, especially for young female judokas. This study examined the acute effects of two different rest intervals (3-min vs. 8-min) on judo-specific performance. Methods Fifteen female judokas (age: 14.6 ± 1.8 years) participated in a randomised crossover study involving four conditions: a controlled condition with a judo-specific warm-up and experimental conditions including ballistic jumps combined with the judo-specific warm-ups, each followed by 3-min or 8-min rest intervals before performing the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT). Countermovement jump (CMJ) height, heart rate (HR), handgrip strength, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed post-SJFT. Results No significant differences in SJFT performance were observed across conditions (p > 0.05). However, immediate (p = 0.018; Hedge’s g = 0.77) and maximum HR (p = 0.021; Hedge’s g = 0.60) were significantly higher in the 3-min experimental condition, indicating increased cardiovascular strain. Right-hand grip strength was also significantly higher in the 3-min experimental condition (p = 0.043; Hedge’s g = 0.45). No significant differences were observed in CMJ height, left handgrip strength, or RPE (p > 0.05). Conclusions Neither 3-min nor 8-min rest interval enhanced judo-specific performance following ballistic conditioning activities in young female judokas. Moreover, shorter rest periods may impose greater cardiovascular demands. Future research should explore alternative conditioning activity protocols and individualised recovery strategies to optimise PAPE responses in female judokas.
Purpose To investigate calf muscle endurance in athletes participating in sports with high demands for repetitive jumping and sprinting and to explore potential sex differences. Methods 189 recreational athletes aged 18–25 years old (40 runners, 49 basketball and volleyball players, 41 badminton and tennis players, 59 soccer and futsal players) performed a maximal number of single-leg calf raises on the edge of a box following a metronome beat (60 beats per minute) with both legs tested in random order, with only the dominant leg analysed in this study. An upright trunk and a straight knee were maintained throughout the testing. Results Significantly greater calf muscle absolute work capacity was observed in male court sport players compared to male field sport players by 46.53% (p < 0.001) and female court sport players by 56.46% (p = 0.002) identified by total work metrics. The normalised total positive work was also higher in male court sport players by 43.92% (p = 0.006), while sex differences in normalised work were not significant. No significant differences were shown in peak heights and number of repetitions among the four sports or between sexes within the other sports. Conclusions Greater absolute work capacity in court sports players reflects sport-specific adaptations to repetitive vertical movements, while sex differences in absolute work are attributable to body mass rather than superior muscular endurance. Our findings suggest the potential benefits of integrating calf muscle training into court sport players.
Purpose This study aimed to profile in-season training load management across different age categories in elite Brazilian male youth footballers, and to compare differences between playing positions (external defenders, central defenders, central midfielders, external midfielders, and forwards) and load structure relative to match-day. Methods During the competitive season, data were collected from 43 players (175.8 ± 6.3 cm, 69.8 ± 8.1 kg) across three age groups (U15: n = 14; U17: n = 16; U20: n = 13), all from the same professional club. Positional data were collected using GPS devices during training sessions. A linear mixed model was used to compare age groups, training days, and positions, with ‘Athlete ID’ included as a random effect. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results U15 and U20 players covered significantly greater total distances than U17 players ( p = 0.01; t = 6.52, p < 0.01; t = 5.92, respectively), while U20s performed more decelerations than U15s ( p < 0.02; t = 2.81). Total distances were higher on MD–4 and MD–3, and lowest on MD–1 and MD+2 ( p < 0.05). High-speed running, sprinting, accelerations, and decelerations were greater on MD–4 and MD–2 across all age groups ( p < 0.05). Conclusions Training load variations across age groups largely reflect coaches’ activity choices, reflecting strategies to promote development while minimising pre-match fatigue. Concerning position-specific differences, external defenders demonstrated the greatest exposure to high-intensity actions and sprinting during the microcycles, regardless of the age category ( p < 0.05). This greater external load is likely associated with position-specific demands, particularly overlapping runs and recovery sprints during both training sessions and matches.
This narrative review synthesises the emerging evidence on immersive virtual reality motor interventions in older adults, with a focus on key domains of dynamic ageing: mobility, balance, cognitive function, emotional well-being, and social connection. Guided by the SANRA framework, we conducted a structured search (2017–2024) centred on interventions using head-mounted displays. Findings consistently suggest improvements in balance, gait, and muscular strength, though most studies are limited by small sample sizes and short durations. Promising effects are also observed in executive function and mood, yet constrained by methodological heterogeneity and a lack of long-term data. Evidence regarding social outcomes remains limited. Persistent barriers, including limited digital literacy, economic constraints, and the absence of standardised outcome measures, continue to impede widespread implementation. This review maps the current landscape, identifies critical gaps, and calls for larger interdisciplinary studies and inclusive, user-centred design. With these foundations, immersive virtual reality holds promise as a scalable tool for fostering autonomy and vitality in later life.
Given the critical importance of sprinting, particularly its role in performance enhancement (e.g., acceleration capacity and maximal sprint speed during decisive actions) and injury prevention (e.g., hamstring protection), this article provides an up-to-date, informed perspective on the topic. To improve sprint performance, coaches and practitioners commonly employ a variety of training strategies, including “unresisted sprint training” (UST; i.e., a primary training method that directly replicates sprinting technique, such as a traditional sprint effort) and “resisted sprint training” (RST; i.e., a secondary training method involving, for example, sprint drills executed with added resistance, thereby modifying sprinting technique). Although both approaches have shown promising results, the optimal loading magnitude for applying RST remains a topic of debate, especially when using sled-towing or weighted vests. Nevertheless, enhancing sprint performance continues to represent a fundamental objective in athletic development, and training methodologies should be strategically planned through appropriate load management and intensity guidelines to elicit the specific adaptations required to optimise performance across distinct individual and team sport contexts. This narrative review and perspective article aims to provide practitioners with a critical analysis of the current evidence on the acute and chronic effects of UST and RST using sled-towing and weighted vests in elite athletes from different sports, together with practical recommendations (e.g., load prescription schemes, sprint distance adjustments, and recovery interval management) to optimise sprint performance.
Introduction Hypopressive exercise (HE) is a therapeutic exercise technique based on breathing and postural cues popularised for the treatment and prevention of a variety of clinical conditions. Objective: This systematic review aimed to evaluate the completeness of HE reporting in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) performed for therapeutic purposes Methods The MEDLINE, SportDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched from inception up to May 2024 for RCTs using HE for therapeutic purposes. Two independent reviewers assessed HE intervention data regarding the completeness of HE intervention using the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR), the consensus on exercise reporting template (CERT), and the risk of bias using The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool version 2 (RoB 2). Results Of the 206 identified studies, 14 RCTs were included with a total population of 782 adults (687 females and 95 males). The average percentage of completeness of reporting for the TIDieR and CERT items was 47.5% and 33.6%, respectively. TIDieR items 1 and 2 (brief name and why) were reported 100% of the time while items 9 and 10 (tailoring and modifications) and CERT items 1 (what), 6 (how) and 14b (tailoring) were 0% reported. 35.7% of the articles had a high risk of bias. Conclusions Reporting of therapeutic interventions based on HE was low for both the TIDieR and CERT items, and a third of RCTs display a high risk of bias. There is underreporting of tailoring, progression, modifications, and delivery of HE planning.
Metabolic syndrome (MetS), characterised by abdominal obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance, presents a growing public health concern, especially among middle-aged and older adults. This systematic review evaluates the effects of different physical exercise modalities, including aerobic training, resistance training, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and combined programs, on MetS-related parameters, inflammation, and cardiometabolic risk factors. A total of 30 studies published between 2000 and 2025 involving participants aged 40 years and older were analysed. All studies reported positive changes in at least one outcome. Notably, reductions in C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and increases in interleukin-10 (IL-10) were reported in 17, 12, 13, and 4 studies, respectively. Improvements in lipid profiles included increased HDL (7 studies), reduced LDL (3 studies), and decreased triglycerides (4 studies). Enhanced aerobic capacity (VO2max/VO2peak) was observed in 4 studies. Blood pressure improvements were found in 5 studies, while waist circumference reduction and better glycemic control (HbA1c, glucose, insulin) were noted in a few studies. Additional anti-inflammatory effects were reflected in reductions of IL-8 (3 studies) and IL-18 (2 studies). Despite these promising outcomes, inconsistencies regarding optimal exercise intensity and volume remain. Limitations such as small sample sizes and methodological variability highlight the need for more standardised and largescale research. This review reinforces the pivotal role of structured physical activity in managing MetS and advocates for personalised exercise interventions to enhance therapeutic efficacy.
Purpose. Sports performance does not reside solely in physical, technical, and psychological preparation. It can also be influenced by external motivation. To examine the immediate effects of coach verbal encouragement on young tennis players' mood state, perceived exertion, and match performance. Methods. Ten young tennis players (aged 9.10 +/- 0.99 years) completed the match protocol in a randomised crossover. On separate days, coaches provided verbal encouragement during all eight match games and a non-encouragement condition. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and total mood disorder (TMD) scores were collected before and after the match, while RPE was collected after each game. Successful ball scores were also collected. Results. TMD scores post-competition were significantly lower in the verbal-encouragement condition compared to both non-encouragement (p = 0.014, d = 0.93, moderate) and baseline conditions (p < 0.001, d = 1.44, large). RPE was significantly higher (p: 0.001-0.009, d: 0.61-2.58, moderate-large) in the 'encouragement' condition for 50% of the games (e.g., 2nd-4th- 6th-7th games) and demonstrated a more stable progression throughout the match, with inflection points identified during the 3rd (p = 0.007, d = 1.19, large) and 7th games (p = 0.001, d = 2.63, large), representing distinct phases of effort intensification. Despite improvements in psychology and effort, successful ball scores showed no significant interaction between en-couragement and time factors (p = 0.401, eta p(2) = 0.11, trivial, omega = 0.42). Conclusions. Acute verbal encouragement from a coach enhances mood states and sustains higher, more stable effort throughout match play in young tennis players. However, these psychological and effort benefits do not translate into immediate performance improvements in successful ball scores.
