Light-intensity physical activity (LPA) (a low level of effort with a slight increase in heart rate and breathing) supports children's cognitive development, particularly in brain regions responsible for attention and executive functions. This study investigated the effects of short-term LPA on prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Thirty-three children aged 10 to 14 years completed seated, light-intensity exercises involving coordination and balance. Hemodynamic changes in oxygenated hemoglobin were recorded in three subregions of the PFC. A significant increase was observed during complex tasks, with mean Z-score changes of 0.68 in the middle PFC and 0.87 in the left PFC (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found between 10- and 20-s durations, suggesting that movement complexity - rather than duration - determines neural activation. These findings indicate that short, structured light-intensity motor tasks elicit measurable prefrontal cortex activation in children. Incorporating brief bouts of light-intensity physical activity into the school day may promote neural engagement of prefrontal regions, although future studies are needed to directly link these neural responses to cognitive performance.
Higher motor competence and fundamental motor skill levels have been linked to stronger executive and attentional functions in early childhood. Still, this evidence base is drawn almost entirely from high-income, so-called WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic) settings. In sub-Saharan African contexts, developmental opportunities are often shaped instead by informal outdoor play, household activity, active commuting, and uneven access to structured physical education. Therefore, it is unclear whether motor-cognitive associations described in WEIRD samples extend to this setting in the sub-Saharan African children's population. This exploratory cross-sectional study examined associations between motor performance and seven cognitive functions in 56 Zambian preschool children (mean age 4.80 ± 0.57 years; 22 boys, 34 girls) recruited from three government preschools in Lusaka. Motor performance was assessed with the Standing Long Jump, 4 × 5 m Shuttle Run, Lateral Jumps, Shifting Platforms, Right- and Left-Hand overarm throws, and the 20 m shuttle run(BEEP) test; cognition was assessed with the seven subtests of the Intelligence and Development Scales - Preschool (IDS-P). Linear regression models, stratified by age group (3-4.9 and 5-6.9 years) and adjusted for age and sex, identified six motor-cognitive associations that reached nominal significance, most consistently between faster Shuttle Run performance and higher Selective Attention scores in both age groups (older group: standardised β = -0.56, p = .003, R2 = .37) and between Standing Long Jump and Visual Processing in the older group (β = 0.55, p = .003, R2 = .32). None of these associations remained significant after false discovery rate (FDR) correction. The findings should be interpreted as preliminary, hypothesis-generating signals rather than confirmatory evidence of specific motor-cognitive pathways. Larger longitudinal and intervention studies that measure nutritional status, parental education, socioeconomic circumstances, home stimulation, habitual physical activity, sleep quality, and preschool context are needed in sub-Saharan African preschool populations.
Early childhood is characterized as a period of extensive development. It is during this period that children begin to develop Fundamental Motor Skills, Executive Functions, and the perception of motor competence.Background/ObjectivesThe aim of this research is to identify the relationship between Fundamental Motor Skills and Executive Functions in children from different clusters of Motor Competence Perception.MethodsThis study is a quasi-experimental, quantitative research with a cross-sectional design of descriptive and associative nature. 190 children aged 3 to 5 years from the city of Juazeiro do Norte participated, who met the inclusion criteria.ResultsThe results showed reasonably well-defined clusters, where Motor Competence Perception appeared in distinct forms between the groups. The network topology showed differences between the 3 clusters: cluster 1 had median connections, cluster 2 was the most disconnected and had the variable 'number' that did not connect to any other, and cluster 3 had the most connections. The highest values of expected influence were inhibitory control in clusters 1 and 2, and locomotion in cluster 3. This means that these variables have a greater tendency to modify the network, so a targeted intervention is important to improve the development of skills in these children.ConclusionsThese analyses are necessary because they provide more information about child development that can be useful for physical education professionals during classes, to intervene effectively in children's needs.
Balance is reliant on key sensory information to maintain postural control. Proprioception is one of the key sensory inputs that influence postural control during static balance tasks. Poor proprioception can lead to impaired balance, which may be amplified under dual-task balance conditions. This study investigates this relationship between proprioception and dual-task balance performance and how it may be affected by age. Proprioception was measured for each ankle using Active Movement Extent Discrimination Assessment (AMEDA), a protocol which determines ankle kinaesthesia acuity through active, weight-bearing ankle inversion movements. Participants completed 12 static dual-task balance conditions (feet together, tandem stance) paired with a cognitive task (control task, digit span forward, and backward). Balance performance was measured by centre of pressure trajectories. Relationships between ankle kinaesthesia and dual-task balance were analysed with linear mixed effects models accounting for age, balance condition and cognitive task. Thirty participants (mean age 52.4, SD 16.4) were recruited. Mixed effects models showed significantly greater sway with tandem foot position (compared to feet together, p < .001) in all models. Higher AMEDA score was associated with lower body sway area (p = .025). AMEDA score was not related to mediolateral or anteroposterior sway range. Older age was associated with greater maximum sway range in the mediolateral (p = .019) and anteroposterior directions (p = .032) and approached significance for body sway area (p = .058). Superior mean ankle kinaesthesia is associated with less body sway area under dual-task conditions, while older age is associated with a greater sway range. Findings suggest proprioception influences dual-task balance performance, such that the ability to control body sway is greater when ankle kinaesthesia is greater. Future studies should consider incorporating single leg stance under dual-task conditions to investigate if the influence of proprioception varies for individual ankle kinaesthesia and limb dominance.
Handedness affects cognitive processing strengths. Consistent with the predominant right hemisphere motor control of the left hand, left-handed older adults have superior immediate and delayed visuospatial memory in comparison with right-handers. Investigations of handedness effects on verbal memory in older adults are, however, scarce and the findings inconsistent. The present study thus examined whether left-handed, right-handed and ambidextrous older adults differ in their subjective and objective verbal memory performance. Data were drawn from Wave 9 of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), including measures of handedness, self-rated memory, immediate verbal recall, and delayed verbal recall from 51,206 older adults (Females = 28,461, Males = 22,745; M age = 72.1, SD = 7.3, range 60-102). General linear modelling examined the effects of handedness and gender on subjective and objective memory, using age as a covariate. Handedness influenced self-rated memory, with ambidextrous participants rating their memory ability higher than right-handers; however, handedness had no effect on either immediate or delayed recall scores. In contrast gender predicted objective memory performance, with females scoring higher than males for both recall tasks, though not for self-rated memory. Overall, these results suggest that while ambidextrous people are more optimistic about their own memory, handedness does not influence verbal memory performance in older adults.
PurposeThis study extends previous basketball shooting research by providing a comprehensive phase-specific kinematic analysis of the stride-stop jump shot (SJS) across different skill levels, addressing a critical gap in understanding how movement coordination varies with expertise. Specifically, the aims were to (i) identify phase-related kinematic differences among players of varying skill levels and (ii) determine key biomechanical features associated with higher-level SJS performance.MethodsThirty-six male basketball players were categorized into high-level (HLG), mid-level (MLG), and low-level (LLG) groups. Each participant performed five successful SJS trials while wearing a full-body inertial motion capture system. Phase durations, temporal coordination parameters, ball-release characteristics, and joint angles were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models with Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons.ResultsGroup effects were observed for catch-preparation, stabilization, release-phase, and follow-through durations (p = 0.001-0.042). The largest between-group difference in phase duration was observed during catch preparation, with LLG exceeding MLG by 0.103 s. HLG spent 0.033 s longer in stabilization and 0.013 s longer in follow-through than LLG. For temporal coordination, T1 was 0.075 s shorter in HLG and 0.067 s shorter in MLG than in LLG (p ≤ 0.024), whereas T4 showed an overall group effect without significant pairwise differences. Shooting-hand release height was 0.223 m higher in HLG and 0.165 m higher in MLG than in LLG, and spin rate was 0.360 and 0.434 rev/s higher, respectively (p ≤ 0.035). Key HLG-LLG joint-angle differences ranged from 8.48° to 14.34° across hip, shoulder, trunk, and wrist variables.ConclusionHigh-level players showed shorter bilateral landing intervals than low-level players, longer stabilization and follow-through phases, higher shooting-hand release height and ball spin rate, and distinct phase-specific joint-angle characteristics during the SJS. These findings describe temporal and kinematic patterns associated with higher skill levels and may provide potential reference values for technique analysis, skill development, and inform talent identification and player selection practices. Practitioners may consider these descriptive features when evaluating footwork synchronization, shooting-hand release height, and upper-limb coordination in developing athletes.
This study investigates the developmental trajectory of visual-motor integration skills among primary school children in Grades 1 to 4 using two standardized task-based assessments: shape copying and symmetry completion. A total of 270 students from public schools completed both tasks, which were scored with a rubric capturing spatial accuracy, contour control, proportionality, and symmetry processing. ANOVA and repeated-measures analyses revealed a significant developmental increase in visuomotor accuracy up to Grade 3, followed by a relative plateau. Students consistently performed better on symmetry completion than on shape copying, suggesting differential cognitive and motor demands across tasks. These findings highlight the sensitivity of accuracy-based visuomotor tasks for detecting age-related differences in motor coordination and spatial processing during middle childhood. The results also provide evidence for the use of rubric-based assessments as practical tools for monitoring visuomotor development in school-aged populations.
Performance anxiety remains a persistent barrier in higher vocal education because it can undermine both technical control and expressive delivery during public singing. This study examined whether a chatbot-delivered, ABMT-informed intervention could reduce performance anxiety among student vocalists and improve selected performance outcomes under routine training conditions. The study included 203 fourth-year vocal students assigned to either a psychologically active Shim chatbot condition or a neutral-script chatbot control condition over a four-month intervention period. Pretest-posttest outcomes were evaluated for situational distress, music performance anxiety, and three rated dimensions of vocal performance, while post-intervention measures assessed self-disclosure, perceived interpersonal closeness, and total interaction time. The revised analysis treated pre-post outcomes using mixed repeated-measures models and post-intervention interaction outcomes using between-group comparisons. The active Shim condition was associated with a marked reduction in music performance anxiety (53.38 to 29.46 vs. 52.67 to 51.78) and a stronger increase in performance confidence (3.67 to 4.21 vs. 3.58 to 3.64) than the neutral-script control condition. The active condition was further associated with lower situational distress, stronger vocal accuracy gains, and higher self-disclosure, perceived interpersonal closeness, and total interaction time, whereas musical expression did not show a clear intervention-specific benefit. These findings suggest that a psychologically active chatbot may be a useful adjunct for reducing short-term performance anxiety in higher-education vocal students and for supporting conditions associated with more confident performance. However, the results do not indicate that chatbot use alone improves expressive interpretation, and the relational outcomes should be interpreted cautiously because the two dialogue conditions differed in content as well as psychological activity.
BackgroundAI chatbots are increasingly used in language education, but their adoption for pronunciation and handwriting instruction remains underexplored. This study examined factors influencing Chinese K-12 foreign language teachers' adoption of AI chatbots for these perceptual-motor teaching tasks. MethodsSurvey data were collected from 615 teachers, with 526 valid responses analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling.ResultsTeachers mainly used AI chatbots for lesson planning and assignment design, while direct use for pronunciation and handwriting instruction was limited. Perceived ease of use positively predicted perceived usefulness, trust, self-efficacy, and behavioral intention. Perceived value strongly predicted perceived usefulness. Trust and self-efficacy predicted behavioral intention, which predicted actual use, whereas perceived usefulness had no significant direct effect on behavioral intention.DiscussionAdoption was influenced more by usability, trust, and implementation confidence than by perceived usefulness alone.ConclusionTeacher training should emphasize evaluating AI-generated feedback and translating chatbot outputs into reliable corrective guidance and repeated practice.
The purpose of the current study was to explore vision-proprioception integration patterns during a novel dynamic reaching test and a shoulder joint repositioning accuracy (JRA) test in virtual reality (VR). Twenty-seven physically healthy individuals performed the dynamic reaching test and JRA test, while vision of their tested hand position was manipulated in VR. Hand positions in both tests were captured with trackers on the participant's wrist, and the hand position was either projected accurately (accurate vision block; AB), not projected (no vision block; NB), or projected with an 8° offset (offset vision block; OB) relative to the wrist tracker position. In the dynamic reaching test, spatial reaching errors significantly differed in OB compared to AB and NB (p = . 008), as the mean value of each condition was 1.8° in AB, 1.2° in NB, and ‒1.5° in OB. Temporal reaching errors did not show significant differences among the visual conditions (p > .1), with mean values of ‒0.1 s in AB, ‒0.2 s in NB, and ‒0.2 s in OB, where the negative values indicate that the hands arrived at the hand-target interception points earlier than the target. In the JRA test, participants also had a larger repositioning error in OB than AB (p < .001), as the mean value for each condition was ‒0.8° in AB and ‒8.9° in OB. Significant differences in spatial reaching and repositioning errors in the dynamic reaching and JRA tests indicate influences of inaccurate vision on the reaching hand position.
The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability of the Balance Tracking System (BTrackS) Limits of Stability (BLOS) protocol among individuals with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2D). This cross-sectional study had participants complete two trials of the BLOS test during one session, where they were instructed to keep both feet planted on the force plate while moving their center of pressure in all directions as far as they could. Recruitment and data collection was conducted at a local endocrinology practice. This study recruited 72 (36 male, 36 female) participants with T2D that could walk unassisted and did not have any lower limb replacements or injuries. Total area of exploration and laterality bias were calculated for each trial. Within-session reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC (2, 1) and ICC (2,k)) to evaluate both single-trial and averaged performance. The total area of exploration demonstrated good-to-excellent single-trial reliability (ICC (2, 1) = 0.82) and excellent reliability when averaged across trials (ICC (2, k) = 0.90). Laterality bias demonstrated moderate single-trial reliability (ICC (2, 1) = 0.56) and improved reliability when averaged (ICC (2, k) = 0.73). The BLOS appears to be a reliable measure of postural control in individuals with T2D. These findings support the potential feasibility of a single-trial assessment for total area, while laterality bias should be interpreted with greater caution.
This study examined how passive versus interactive videos affect the learning of dance sequences at different times of day. Twenty-four undergraduate physical education students (novices) were recruited through purposive sampling and equally divided into two groups matched on chronotype: one group viewed passive videos, while the other used interactive videos featuring play, pause, forward, and replay functions. Participants completed four sessions-two acquisition sessions, one in the morning (08:00-09:00) and one in the late afternoon (16:00-17:00) on separate days, and two retention sessions one week later at the same times. Recall performance was assessed multiple times during acquisition and once at follow-up, using a 32-point scoring system based on accurate reproduction of 16 discrete movement steps, evaluated by blinded expert raters from video recordings. Physiological indicators of arousal (heart rate and body temperature) were recorded at the start of acquisition sessions, and intrinsic motivation was measured afterward. Results showed that interactive videos enhanced recall performance during both morning and afternoon acquisition sessions (p < 0.001), confirming an instructional benefit regardless of time of day. However, interactivity did not significantly influence intrinsic motivation (p = 0.841). A clear time-of-day effect emerged (p < 0.001): immediate recall was superior in the morning, whereas long-term retention was significantly better following afternoon learning, regardless of video type. These findings suggest that the morning advantage in acquisition may reflect temporary performance facilitation rather than lasting learning. Practically, to promote durable retention of dance sequences, educators should prioritize afternoon practice when teaching new material. Morning sessions remain useful for rehearsing already-learned sequences or preparing for immediate performance. Interactive video-based instruction is effective across all times of day and can be flexibly integrated into dance education.
PurposeThis study investigated the relationship between simple reaction time (SRT) and self-reported knee function in individuals following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). We hypothesized that slower SRT would be associated with lower scores on the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS), independent of time since surgery.MethodsIn this cross-sectional analysis, 43 participants (mean age 24.6 ± 6.3 years; 67% female; mean time since surgery 21.6 ± 13.9 months) completed a demographic questionnaire, the KOOS, and a computerized SRT assessment. The SRT test involved 10 repetitions, measuring the time required for participants to lift a finger in response to a visual stimulus on a tablet. Linear regression analyses were used to examine the association between KOOS subscale scores and SRT.ResultsRegression analyses indicated that improvements in KOOS-ADL and KOOS-Pain scores predicted faster reaction times, with our variables explaining between 11% and 21% of the variance in SRT.ConclusionsThe findings demonstrate that poorer self-reported knee function is associated with slower SRT in patients post-ACLR, suggesting that cognitive-motor interference may play a role in recovery. Incorporating SRT assessments into rehabilitation protocols could provide a cost-effective means to identify functional deficits and tailor interventions to enhance overall outcomes.
This study examined how psychological factors relate to perceived perceptual-motor performance in AI-assisted learning among Chinese junior college students. A total of 910 students from five provinces completed established questionnaires measuring intrinsic motivation, learning anxiety, peer support, self-regulation, perceived competence, and curiosity while engaging in AI-supported perceptual-motor tasks. Correlation, hierarchical regression, and structural equation modeling analyses revealed that intrinsic motivation, peer support, and self-regulation were positively associated with perceived competence and curiosity, whereas learning anxiety showed negative associations. Self-regulation emerged as the strongest predictor across models. The findings suggest that performance in AI-assisted environments is shaped by the coordinated influence of motivational, affective, social, and regulatory processes rather than technological features alone.
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into art education presents a complex shift in perceptual-motor learning, yet the psychological mechanisms associated with learners' responses to these digital tools remain insufficiently mapped. This study investigates the structural relationships among self-efficacy, cognitive load, attention allocation, learning strategy preference, task motivation, and perceived difficulty within the context of AI-assisted art education. Drawing on a sample of 637 Chinese art learners, the research employs structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine correlational patterns and structural associations among these self-reported psychological constructs. The results suggest that self-efficacy was negatively associated with cognitive load and positively associated with self-reported attention allocation. Perceived difficulty was associated with higher cognitive load and lower self-efficacy, indicating that difficulty may operate as a double-edged factor in AI-assisted art learning. Attention allocation was positively associated with learning strategy preference, and learning strategy preference was positively associated with task motivation; however, these paths should be interpreted as structural associations rather than evidence of mediation or causal effects. These findings complicate the assumption that technological affordances alone enhance learning, highlighting instead that learners' cognitive and self-regulatory resources are closely linked to their experiences of AI-supported art practice. The study concludes by arguing for pedagogical and design approaches that prioritize cognitive economy, adjustable feedback, and the cultivation of adaptive mastery beliefs in technologically enriched artistic environments.
Accurate quantification of punch force is essential for performance assessment and training optimization in combat sports. This study introduces a Custom-Built Punch Force Dynamometer using two S-type load cells and evaluates its reliability, sensitivity, and partial ecological validity under sport-specific conditions. The device was mounted vertically on a wall and tested under both controlled and sport-specific conditions. Mechanical trials were assessed using a standardized drop-weight protocol with repeated trials. Partial ecological validity involved 11 experienced athletes from striking-based combat sports performing standardized straight punches across two lab visits. Reliability metrics included intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), and smallest worthwhile change (SWC). The dynamometer demonstrated excellent reliability during mechanical trials (ICC > 0.90) and good to excellent reliability during partial ecological validity (ICC = 0.75-0.90). SEM values were consistently lower than SWC, indicating strong measurement sensitivity. These findings support the reliability and practical utility of this device for assessing punch force in both laboratory-based research and sport-specific applications.
This study examined whether elite Taekwondo athletes invest additional time to make better decisions under uncertainty by using a perception-action coupling task with temporal occlusion. Eighteen elite and 18 amateur Taekwondo athletes completed an embodied choice task in which they observed an opponent's kicking action and executed a corresponding motor response. Three temporal occlusion levels were used to manipulate the amount of visual information available (T1, T2, and T3). Reaction time, prediction accuracy, and decision confidence were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Descriptive results showed that amateurs became slightly faster from T1 to T3, whereas elites were slower at T1 but fastest at T3. Elites also showed substantial improvements in prediction accuracy and decision confidence as visual information increased, whereas amateurs showed only modest changes in accuracy and a gradual decline in confidence. The linear mixed-effects models revealed significant effects of group, occlusion level, and their interaction for reaction time and prediction accuracy, and a significant Group × Occlusion interaction for decision confidence. These findings suggest that elite Taekwondo athletes do not simply react faster; rather, they strategically delay their responses under high uncertainty and respond more efficiently once decisive kinematic cues become available. The results support the applicability of the embodied choice framework to one-to-one combat sports and highlight the importance of training perceptual timing and anticipatory skill in Taekwondo.
Solving tasks with others is fundamental in our daily life and requires coordinating actions with other agents in time and space. To manage such real-time interactions, humans must deal with uncertainty caused by noise and delays in sensory and motor signals. One mechanism the sensorimotor system may employ to reduce uncertainty is exploiting information from multiple sensory systems. Here, we review empirical studies examining how visual, auditory, and haptic information contribute to joint actions. A systematic search following PRISMA guidelines yielded 24 eligible studies, which we classified according to the taxonomies by Knoblich et al. (2011) - emergent vs planned coordination - and Jarrassé et al. (2012) - co-activity, cooperation, and collaboration. Across emergent and planned coordination, access to multiple sensory channels generally enhanced interpersonal coordination. The review provides indications that the weighting of sensory signals depends on their reliability and task relevance. However, studies directly testing integration principles are rare, and learning in the context of multisensory integration in joint action remains unexplored. We argue that experimentally testing multisensory integration mechanisms in joint actions and investigating training-related changes offers valuable avenues for further research, advancing theoretical understanding and practical applications across domains such as sports, rehabilitation, and human-robot interaction.
Objective To investigate ankle proprioceptive sensitivity under different position exposure times (PETs) and performance score relationship with the severity of perceived ankle instability in individuals with CAI. Design Test-retest reliability, cross-sectional comparative study. Settings University laboratory. Participants Forty-eight individuals (24 CAI, 24 non-CAI). Outcome measure Smartphone Proprioception for Ankle Navigation (SPAN) was used to assess active ankle movement proprioceptive performance under two PET conditions (0.25 s and 1 s). The symptomatic (CAI-SS) and asymptomatic side (CAS-AS) were tested and retested for reliability for CAI group, whilst randomly selected side of non-CAI group was tested once for between-group comparisons. Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool (CAIT) was self-administered to quantify perceived severity of ankle instability. Results Longer PET (1.0 s) improved proprioceptive sensitivity in non-CAI and CAI-AS groups but not in CAI-SS. Ankle proprioceptive performance at 1.0 s PET was significantly correlated with CAIT scores. SPAN test-retest reliability was influenced by PET, with similar ICCs for CAI-SS at both PETs but notable differences for CAI-AS. Conclusion This study highlights the temporal aspect of proprioceptive impairments associated with CAI as measured with SPAN. Individuals with CAI struggled to utilize prolonged exposure time to enhance proprioceptive sensitivity, and this limitation was significantly associated with the severity of perceived ankle instability.
