Western music conservatories emerged from European modernity and remain centred on the performance and analysis of European art music. In Australia, this legacy intersects with the colonial history of Indigenous cultural suppression and the marginalisation of non-western traditions. Despite calls for decolonisation and diversification, conservatory curricula continue to reproduce epistemological hierarchies, often engaging with other musical cultures in a tokenistic or exploitative manner. This article examines efforts to diversify aural skills training within an Australian conservatory through collaborative teaching interventions featuring Aboriginal Australian and Iranian classical music. Two workshops, led by cultural custodians and scholars, were integrated into the final semester of the undergraduate aural skills sequence. Students engaged in listening, analysis, and performance exercises that challenged them to apply their existing skills beyond the western canon. Survey responses from 48 students revealed a generally positive reception: Most valued exposure to new musical traditions, reported increased respect for cultural diversity, and reflected critically on their own musical assumptions. However, tensions also emerged, particularly around the application of a “western lens” to non-western music, expectations of curricular relevance, and the complexities of engaging responsibly with Indigenous traditions. These findings underscore both the opportunities and challenges of curriculum diversification in higher music education. We argue that small but carefully designed intercultural interventions can foster openness, critical awareness, and transferable listening skills, while also highlighting the need for ongoing dialogue about positionality, cultural sensitivity, and institutional responsibility. Ultimately, respectful collaboration with culture bearers has the potential to broaden the scope of conservatory training and strengthen intercultural musical understanding.
Creativity has become increasingly central to global music education, yet research has largely focused on creative teaching methods, technology integration, and collaborative supports. A critical gap remains in understanding how music teachers perceive creativity within contemporary educational contexts. Our study addresses that gap by investigating the factors within contemporary music education settings in China that influence teachers’ perceptions of creativity. Using an interpretivist qualitative approach, data were collected from three primary school music teachers and three private piano teachers through 12 classroom music lesson observations, 12 piano lesson observations, 17 semistructured interviews, critical incident charting, and the researcher’s diary. This article focuses on findings related to the study’s first research question: What are these Chinese music teachers’ perceptions of creativity? We present a model of these teachers’ perceptions of creativity in contemporary music education contexts. Two key themes emerged. First, creativity was understood in two main ways: as the reinterpretation of musical works and as the development of pupils’ creative thinking. Second, participants described using progressive pedagogical strategies to navigate the tension between fostering creativity and meeting examination-related demands within teacher-centred structures. Drawing on these insights, we propose a Spectrum of Music Education and a practice-informed model comprising seven developmental phases, capturing how creative practices are embedded across different teaching contexts. Primary school teachers emphasised musical knowledge and classroom engagement as foundational to creativity, whereas piano teachers prioritised technical proficiency and aesthetic sensitivity. By incorporating the perspectives of both classroom and piano teachers, the study provides a diverse range of insights, deepening understandings of how creativity is conceptualised and implemented both in and out of school music educational settings in contemporary China. We highlight implications for policy, research, and practice, including the importance of aligning technical with creative development.
This article presents the findings of an evaluation study investigating factors that influence early adolescents’ interest in general music lessons. The study was conducted in two ninth-grade classes at a public general education school in Slovenia. A total of 39 students aged 14–15 years participated in the research. The existing Slovenian curriculum for music education was enriched with a teaching model based on the Orff Schulwerk approach, which integrates vocal, instrumental, and movement-based improvisation and creation. Data were collected using group interviews, a 10-point interest scale, student diaries, online surveys, and video analysis with an observation protocol and were analysed using qualitative and quantitative methods. The results highlight four key factors that significantly influenced student interest: authentic music education, peer collaboration, a supportive learning environment, and the role of the music teacher. Students responded positively to authentic musical activities that promoted emotional engagement, resilience, and interpersonal relationships. The study also highlights a contrast between student enthusiasm and the challenges teachers face in maintaining motivation in the classroom. The findings suggest that an authentic music approach—particularly one in which the creation, performance, and listening of music occur simultaneously and interdependently—can significantly increase student motivation and engagement. The study also indicates the important role of the teacher in such contexts and the difficulties associated with maintaining motivation and managing classroom dynamics in a supportive learning environment with peer collaboration. These findings have practical implications for curriculum design and teacher training, emphasising the need for an authentic approach in music education.
Research shows a positive relationship between collective music-making and empathy development in general music classrooms, but associations between empathy and specific forms of collective instrumental music-making have been underexplored. The purpose of this study was (1) to examine the relationship between different forms of collective music-making and empathy development and (2) to investigate the relationship of co-performer empathy and performance achievement for adolescent instrumental music students. An experimental pre- and post-test design was applied to examine these relationships. High school instrumental music students ( N = 185) were randomly assigned to one of three music-making conditions: improvising dyad (ID; n = 64), notated duet (ND; n = 62), and large performance ensemble ( n = 59). Participants completed musical interventions related to their respective condition assignments for 20 min a week for a period of 8 weeks. Regression analysis was used to compare the pre- and post-test empathy scores of participants in the three music-making conditions. Co-performers in the ID and ND duet conditions were categorised as High–High, High–Low, and Low–Low empathy pairs using gender-weighted medians from pre-test empathy scores and compared pre- and post-test performance achievement for the different pair combinations in the different conditions with a repeated-measures analysis of variance. Findings showed that there were no statistically significant differences in empathy development within or between music-making groups. However, High–High empathy co-performers did demonstrate significantly higher levels of performance achievement when compared with Low–Low empathy pairs.
Participation in community music-making has been widely associated with enhanced well-being, particularly for adult amateur musicians. However, a growing body of research suggests that while participation can improve well-being, a career in music may adversely affect the well-being of professional musicians facilitating these activities. Few studies have examined amateur string players or the dual perspective of amateur learners and professional musicians as facilitators in musical ensembles. This study, therefore, explored the perceived influence of participation in a community outreach string ensemble programme on the physical, social, and psychological well-being of both adult learners and professional directors. The study draws on Dodge et al.’s (2012) holistic model of well-being, framed in conversation with PERMA, to capture the multidimensional benefits and tensions of ensemble participation. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected via questionnaires ( n = 24 participants), focus groups ( n = 14 learners), and interviews ( n = 4 directors). Quantitative findings indicate overwhelmingly positive ratings for overall well-being, with 100% of participants reporting slightly or very positive outcomes. Social and emotional benefits were especially pronounced, while physical experiences were more variable. Qualitative data provided insights into music-making as lived experience, including emotional gratification, cognitive demand, social relationships, identity development, and physical strain. Findings align with existing literature on the benefits of adult music participation but also extend current understanding by foregrounding the reciprocal value for professional musicians as directors, whose experiences were more positive than typically reported in studies of professional orchestral musicians. This study demonstrates that well-being in community music-making is co-constructed, as learners and professional musicians in the director role support one another’s growth, identity, and purpose through shared music-making. Future research should continue to consider other ensembles, musical genres, and instruments, and further examine the contribution of various roles in the professional musician’s career portfolio.
This article proposes the Sustainable Musical Lifecourse framework as a theoretical orientation for addressing the challenges that lifelong music education faces in rapidly aging societies. Situated within the broader interconnections of lifelong learning and music education, the article builds on policy reflections from two distinct national contexts: Finland and China. By reframing the concept of later-life and examining current music learning opportunities for older adults, the study reveals that existing policy structures are often shaped by economic demands and the discourse of successful aging. These structures overlook the deeper pedagogical and existential possibilities of later-life music education. To address these limitations, the Sustainable Musical Lifecourse framework integrates four interrelated conceptual dimensions - lifecourse theory, transformative learning, sustainable aging, and gerotranscendence - to expand and envision personal transformation and social sustainability through music education in later life. This article contributes to developing practical approaches to lifelong music education by advancing a forward-looking perspective for envisioning alternative futures and more sustainable ways of living and learning through music in later life.
The increasing integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into music education raises important pedagogical, creative, and ethical questions. This scoping review synthesises recent empirical research on the use of AI in classroom-based music education, with a particular focus on student learning outcomes and creativity. Reviewed studies included 22 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between January 2023 and March 2025, identified from 1,274 records through systematic searches in major academic databases, revealing a strong geographical concentration of studies in East Asia, particularly China, with most research employing experimental designs and focusing on higher education contexts. Studies examined a range of AI applications, including adaptive learning systems, intelligent tutoring tools, AI-supported composition and arrangement technologies, and large language model chatbots. Across these contexts, AI use was generally associated with positive outcomes related to student motivation, self-efficacy, technical skill development, and aspects of musical creativity. At the same time, recurring concerns were raised regarding authorship, artistic authenticity, emotional depth, and teacher preparedness for AI integration. Methodologically, the literature is dominated by short-term quantitative measures, limiting insight into creative processes and classroom practices. Overall, the review suggests that AI may support music education when used alongside human guidance, while highlighting the need for qualitative and longitudinal research on creativity, pedagogy, and ethical considerations.
Students’ motivation is a multifaceted phenomenon that plays a critical role in ensuring ongoing engagement in music learning. While extensive research has been conducted globally to investigate student motivation, data specific to Greek students remains notably scarce. This study addresses the gap by exploring the academic drive of Greek students in a public music school. Despite its location in Greece, the findings offer important insights that can inform international discussions on music education. The research employed a motivational framework developed by Jones, grounded in social-cognitive theory. This model examines motivation through five interconnected components: EMpowerment, Usefulness, Success, Interest, and Care—collectively referred to as MUSIC. The questionnaire included 18 items linked to these elements and was administered to 162 students, spanning both lower- and upper-secondary levels, who were attending individual instrument lessons. The findings revealed that students generally exhibited high levels of motivation across all five criteria. However, non-parametric analysis revealed statistically significant differences in results. Specifically, Care had the highest mean rank and consistently stood out as significantly different from all the others in the pairwise analysis. Interest and Success showed differentiation from Care, Empowerment, and Usefulness, although not from each other. Usefulness and Empowerment, which shared the lowest mean ranks, were perceived similarly and appeared to be less central than the other components. The research supports the argument that educators need to provide students with greater autonomy in their learning. Furthermore, fostering a clearer connection between music learning and its relevance to students’ future endeavors is imperative. These insights underscore the importance of refining instructional practices, not only in Greece but also in diverse educational settings worldwide, to enhance student motivation.
Research findings have indicated that movement can be a powerful tool when teaching rhythm, pitch, and expressive skills. The concept of using movement to enhance musical expression has been a topic of discourse in practitioner articles and mentioned as a strategy in several studies where teachers were observed in choral rehearsals. Yet, a singular focus on how kinesthetic support affects expressive performance remains scarce. Consequently, the primary aim of this research was to investigate what effect, if any, did the use of kinesthetic support throughout the learning sequence have on expressive performance scores. Sixth-grade choir students learned two songs using a prerecorded learning sequence. One sequence included kinesthetic support (i.e., hand movements) to reinforce the expressive qualities of the song, and one did not. We found a significant difference between sequences. When students learned a song using contrasting kinesthetic supports for legato/staccato and forte/piano, their expressiveness scores were higher. Teachers should consider including kinesthetic supports to help reinforce the expressive qualities of a song. Classroom application, limitations, and further research are discussed.
As music educators around the world continue to seek inclusive professional communities that support teacher identity and belonging, understanding how these dynamics unfold within national organizations is critical. As such, the purpose of this mixed-methods study was to explore individuals’ sense of belonging to and identity within the American Orff-Schulwerk Association (AOS Association, n.d.). Ninety-three elementary music teachers completed a questionnaire measuring their strength of Orff Schulwerk teacher identity and sense of belonging to AOS Association, followed by interviews with four purposively selected participants. Quantitative data reflected a positive correlation between participants’ Orff Schulwerk identity and their perceived sense of belonging to AOS Association. However, there were notable differences across gender identities, as transgender and gender-expansive participants reported a lower sense of belonging. In addition, qualitative findings revealed how geographical and political contexts in the United States affected marginalized members’ ability to participate fully in AOS Association activities, particularly regarding conference locations. Results also indicated that AOS Association membership status significantly affected participants’ sense of belonging, with members reporting higher levels of belonging than non-members. Implications for the broader field of music education are discussed.
This study explored Thai parents’ motivations and perceptions surrounding piano exams, focusing on the perceived benefits, challenges, and long-term objectives associated with these assessments. Using a mixed-methods approach, data revealed that parents primarily viewed piano exams as a means to establish strong musical foundations; foster discipline, patience, and responsibility; and support their children’s holistic development. Certification from internationally recognized boards, such as the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music and Trinity College London, was particularly valued, as it provided a respected benchmark of progress and skill. Although exams were seen as opportunities for tangible accomplishments that build confidence and perseverance, parents also noted drawbacks, including exam-related stress, the high financial costs involved, and the potential for these exams to limit musical creativity due to a focus on standardized repertoire. Although parents valued the skills and discipline fostered by piano exams, they generally did not envision music as a professional pathway for their children. Instead, they regarded the skills gained as transferable, supporting broader academic and personal pursuits. Furthermore, a strong preference for international exams emerged, attributed to the limited visibility and perceived credibility of Thai-based exam systems, emphasizing a need for greater promotion and recognition of local alternatives.
This article highlights the nature of the emerging field of ecoliteracy in music education and contributes to expanding the conversation in this area. A recent model of musical ecoliteracy is presented, that integrates ecomusicological and ecosocial research traditions. This model of musical ecoliteracy is applied to analyse empirical data that maps the prevalence of ecological awareness and ecoliteracy across 18 internationally esteemed and high-quality scholarly music education journals over a period of 6 years (2019-2024). Results show that only 0.4% of 2,266 articles were related to ecological awareness or ecoliteracy. The eight articles that were identified as relating to the subject were further analyzed thematically, bottom-up and top-down, using the model of musical ecoliteracy as a guiding analytical lens. The results present the theoretical frameworks employed and the pedagogical implications suggested in these studies. This paper argues that this model of musical ecoliteracy is a useful framework, offering both theoretical insights and practical guidance for designing ecologically literate music education.
Music technology has stimulated the development of digital musical instruments (DMIs) that enable more disabled pupils to actively engage in music-making. However, music teachers who are unfamiliar with DMIs sometimes do not know ‘where to start’ with these instruments and refrain from teaching them altogether. With the aim of lowering the threshold to teach DMIs, we initiated an educational design research study in which we designed and tested one-to-one beginner lessons for the Magic Flute (a digital wind instrument), the Adaptive Travel Sax (a digital saxophone), and the Switch Guitar (a guitar that can play three chords through digital switches). The underlying design principles for the lessons were student agency, flexible customization, and multisensory teaching. In the first research phase, we observed and interviewed six pioneer teachers who taught the DMIs. We analyzed their data through thematic analysis, which laid the foundation for the design of the lessons. In the second research phase, the draft lessons were tested and evaluated by seven music teachers and their pupils with disabilities. Based on the thematic analysis of the data from focus group interviews with these music teachers, we enhanced the design of the final lessons. Although the lessons may improve accessibility to DMI education, we found that music teachers do have to navigate between customizing lessons and providing goal-oriented instrumental education. In relation to agency, pupils emphasized the importance of contemporary, self-selected music. Furthermore, there remains a need to develop social-cultural communities to support the adoption and sustainability of DMIs in music education. As such, the study concludes that accessibility not only requires access to DMIs and suitable one-to-one tuition but also the integration of DMIs into mainstream ensembles and music curricula.
The aim of this research was to examine the role of musical creativity activities in students’ music education in a Croatian general primary school. An experimental study was conducted to determine whether musical creativity activities influenced students’ perceptions of music lessons and to assess whether those activities contributed to a better understanding of the teaching material. The research involved the implementation of musical creativity activities in the lessons of two experimental groups over four class periods within 1 month during the 2024/2025 school year. The two control groups were taught the same content using traditional music-teaching methods. After each music lesson, students from both the experimental and the control groups completed a short questionnaire. The students’ perceptions of music lessons were evaluated through three constructs: interest and participation, knowledge acquisition, and collaboration. At the end of the research, the students completed an exam to assess their understanding and knowledge retention. The research included fifth- (age 11) and seventh-grade students (age 13) of a general primary school ( N = 55). The results indicated that students rated their collaboration and participation in lessons higher when musical creativity activities were implemented. In addition, it was found that the girls in the experimental groups rated all three constructs more positively than the girls in the control groups, while the boys in the experimental groups rated their level of collaboration higher than the boys in the control groups. Although the experimental groups’ participants achieved higher overall scores on the exam, the difference was not statistically significant. These findings suggest the need for more frequent implementation of creativity activities in music lessons.
Music teachers who work in institutions tend to have access to professional development (PD) opportunities when formal support structures mandate it, while studio music teachers often have to find their own avenues for PD, and little is understood about this, especially in contexts outside the global North. In Malaysia, most studio music teachers work in private settings that are unregulated, and in this research project we were interested in the support that these teachers are accessing. As part of a larger mixed methods study, we developed a questionnaire that asked about the respondents' history of training, current work situation, confidence levels, sources and availability of PD, and reasons for attending or not attending PD events. The survey was distributed using online survey management software and was advertised to various online teacher forums that have a combined membership of over 15,000. One hundred ninety-six studio music teachers responded to the invitation and completed the survey of which 194 provided usable data. Data were analysed using exploratory factor analysis. A 10-factor structure described 67.26% of the total variance in the data set. We have named the factors: music-technical motivation for development; support through personal contact; confidence levels of teaching; technology-mediated support; social and financial inhibitors of PD; institutional support; information seeking; time and priorities inhibit PD; public, in-person support; and professional organisation support. We discuss these findings in the light of the modes of support that studio music teachers' access, the motivators and inhibitors for seeking that support. We argue that the absence of formalised support and the lack of structured PD opportunities means that studio music teachers are likely to only choose opportunities that are directly relevant to their work and earning potential, while they primarily seek support from self-created and maintained networks of other teachers.
Institutional websites have become key stages on which educational organisations perform identity, authority and relevance. This study investigates how the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM) and Trinity College London (TCL) recalibrated their digital self-presentations across 2016, 2022 and 2025. Drawing on multimodal discourse analysis of five recurring webpage genres, it examines how visual, textual and structural choices negotiate evolving narratives of heritage, inclusivity, learner agency and digital fluency. Findings reveal expansions in presentations of visual diversity and collaborative music-making, yet achieved through distinctly different semiotic approaches: the ABRSM layers broader representation onto an enduring discourse of tradition and rigour, whereas TCL integrates more corporate-associated semiotics to foreground diversity, informality and technological fluency within the architecture of its brand narrative. Across both institutions, examinations transition from being positioned as authority-certified symbols of achievement, to functioning as branded cultural artefacts that suggest lifestyle (participation, belonging) and global relevance.
Children invent and play with musical ideas in the same ways they invent and play with all the ideas and processes they experience in life. Music educators can draw on children's natural generative capacities to foster deep musical engagement and understanding in classroom settings. In this article, I offer some reflections on what music learners and music education scholars have taught me, throughout my 50-year career, about music learners' creative musical understandings and processes. To arrive at the thematic threads that underlie and frame the article, I engaged in recursive reflection on connections between and among numerous instances that occurred in different times and contexts. I hope these themes might be useful to other practitioners and researchers. Broad themes that emerged reflect the nature of children's processes of inventing and initiating musical ideas, and that their creative process (a) is holistic, contextual, and intellectual; (b) reflects their musical experience, knowledge, and understanding; (c) is a form of meaning-making and personal expression; (d) is embedded in and influenced by their sociocultural understanding and values; and (e) is rooted in their personal and musical agency. Each theme is explained in relation to the others, supported by salient examples from data collected in a wide range of settings, and connected to the findings of others as reported in the literature.
This article explores teachers' ideologies, values, and lived experiences of teaching music in culturally diverse classrooms. Drawing on Irish primary classroom observations and reflective teacher logs collected over a full school year, the study examines how teachers perceive and respond to diversity in music education. The analysis is framed by three theoretical concepts, space (Massey), encounter (Arendt), and disorientation (Ahmed), which offer distinct lenses through which to examine the relational and political nature of socio-musical educational spaces. Findings reveal that teachers play a pivotal role in facilitating and shaping such spaces, yet their responses to diversity vary widely. Some demonstrate flexibility, responsiveness, and openness to child agency, whereas others rely on habitual, screen-mediated practices that limit creativity and reinforce cultural stereotypes. Teachers with greater levels of musical confidence tend to embrace child-led activities and culturally responsive approaches, whereas those with lower levels of confidence often revert to highly prescriptive, externally sourced content. A recurring theme is the gap between teacher intentions and actual practices. While many teachers view music as inherently good and inclusive, their approaches often overlook the complexities of intercultural encounters. Disorientation, understood as moments of discomfort or unfamiliarity, emerges as a critical concept, revealing both challenges and opportunities for pedagogical transformation. Teachers' responses to disorientation reflect broader structural issues, including a homogeneous teaching workforce, embedded bias, and limited cultural awareness. Hence, we argue for increased reflexive engagement with discomfort and disorientation that recognises the political dimensions of music in diverse classrooms. Through such engagement there is great potential for teachers and schools to embrace change to create more inclusive and agentic musical spaces that reflect the intercultural realities of contemporary classrooms.
