Ranching was the primary form of livestock production in Cuba until 1959 when the sector began to concentrate more on milk production, recording an average annual growth of more than 10 percent between 1960 and 1989. In the 1990s, the downfall of socialism in Eastern Europe had serious repercussions on Cuba's trade situation and undermined development of the livestock sector, which had been based on the importation of large quantities of fuel, feed, fertilizer, agrochemicals and other products needed for input-intensive industrial production systems. A sharp decline in herd fertility followed, and milk and meat output dropped by as much as 50 percent Since then, Cuba's livestock sector has emphasized self-sufficiency based on the utilization, of pasture, protein-rich fodder trees, sugar cans (a source of non-protein nitrogen) and other local resources. After barely six years, there are already tangible signs of recovery.
This article explores the relationships between cattle ranching, landuse, deforestation, rural employment and biodiversity. If outlines a series of principles to initiate the transformation of the present system of cattle ranching into something more sustainable, less incompatible with biological diversity and more appropriate for human welfare. Although the analyses and the numbers are based on the Colombian case, they are typical of the situation in the Latin American tropics. The case of Colombia is perhaps extreme in all aspects and therefore particularly instructive. The enormous biological diversity, at risk from production systems, which are blamed for causing a concentration of landownership, inequalities, migration from the countryside to the cities, rural poverty and environmental degradation, demands imaginative and viable technological answers at all levels of production. But, in addition, in a country devastated by violence, the strategy for the environmental rehabilitation of cattle ranching must coincide with social reform. The article demonstrates, with examples, the application of each one of the principles for the transformation of the current cattle ranching system: abundant biomass and energy, diversity of plant species, intercropping, hedges, living fences and biological corridors, efficient use of manure, diversity of habitats, reduction in the use of pesticides and other toxic compounds and appropriate prairie management. These principles, and the examples outlined in the article, are applicable on any scale and in any environmental, social and cultural context, as long as the methodology is identified to incorporate the biological variables and economic parameters in an appropriate technological model.
Mexican pig farming has developed significantly in the last 25 years, although its basic characteristics have remained the same: a diversity of products, dependence on imports for foundation stock and feed, and the failure to internalize environmental costs. Environmental problems arise from the segregation of pig farming and agricultural activity, the existence of large pig concentrations at the regional and farm levels, the type of feeding systems used, the free supply and inefficient use of water and a shortage of trained personnel. Mexico has limited water resources and the heaviest pig concentrations are in regions where water is most scarce and polluted. A large number of farms have no waste treatment or recycling facilities and the country's environmental policy is based on prescriptive measures rather than economic incentives. In conclusion, any attempt to render pig production sustainable will be a medium-term undertaking at least, entailing changes in feeding systems, farm facilities and management techniques, together with human resource training and the establishment of interinstitutional and intersectoral environmental programmes tailored to the sector.
Summary Mulberry (Morus spp), the traditional feed for the silk worm, has been selected and improved for leaf yield and quality in many environments and is spread throughout the world. Mulberry leaves are highly palatable and digestible (70-90 %) to herbivorous animals and can also be fed to monogastrics. Protein content in the leaves and young stems, with a good essential amino acid profile, varies from 15 to 28 % depending on the variety. Mineral content is high and no anti-nutritional factors or toxic compounds have been identified. The establishment of this perennial forage is through stakes or seed, and it is harvested by leaf picking or cutting whole branches or stems. Yields depend on variety, location (monthly temperature, solar radiation and rainfall ), plant density, fertilizer application and harvesting technique, but in terms of digestible nutrients, mulberry produces more than most traditional forages. The leaves can be used as supplements replacing concentrates for dairy cattle, as the main feed for goats, sheep and rabbits, and as in ingredient in monogastric diets.
Several researchers have previously reported on the use of urea molasses mineral block (UMMB) licks for supplementing the crop residue-based diet of large and small ruminants (Leng, 1983; Sansoucy, 1986; 1995). The slow ingestion of urea provided through such licks ensures its efficient non-toxic utilization. However, the formulation, production, packaging and feeding of UMMBs requires critical attention to ensure their regular and practical use by farmers. The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in Anand, India, first introduced farmers to the UMMBs in 1983, when they were prepared by using the "hot process" technique. However, because of the high costs of the production process and its inefficiency, these licks were not very popular with the farmers. This was exacerbated by cost increases which, between 1983 and 1994, resulted in a rise from Rs 5 to Rs 22 for a 3 kg block. This stimulated further research and development work to improve the production technology. This article gives a brief introductory description of the "hot process" used for UMMB production and summarizes the research undertaken at NDDB for standardizing the formulation of UMMBs and developing means for their large-scale production by the "cold process". It also deals with packaging, duality control and long-term storage and examines the licking behaviour of animals presented with these blocks under field conditions.
Kielce and Radom are among the poorest regions in Poland. In 1993, the average monthly worker's income was only $175, and the rate of unemployment exceeded 15 percent. The, size of the average family is seven members and the food they consume comes mostly from the home farm (average farm size is 2 ha) with crops and vegetables being grown on poor-quality soils (Statistical Yearbook, 1995). In general, traditional rabbit breeding in Poland involves small-scale home production (Niedzwiadek, 1988). Since 1992, the "Family Farm Rabbit Production" programme, run by Heifer Project International, has provided basic training and coordinated distribution of rabbit stock to about 5 175 rural families in 212 villages in the Kielce and Radom regions, the main objective being to encourage families to produce inexpensive rabbit meat for consumption and so improve diet quality. A secondary objective was to supplement family income through the collective marketing of surplus fryers. In 1992,. an initial batch of 5 104 breeding rabbits was distributed to 1 017 families. In 1993, these first-cycle recipient families returned surplus offspring to the programme for shared distribution to a further 556 families. Several such cycles of redistribution of breeding stock have since occurred.(Lukefahr and Jasiorowski, 1995). Few development programmes have investigated the factors that influence levels of rabbit production on small farms. Such information would, however, be useful to enterprises aimed at small-scale rabbit production and to the managers of such projects. Therefore, our objectives were to: assess rabbit production levels; determine the importance of the various factors affecting reproduction and their possible interactions; investigate the influence of husbandry practices on doe and fryer production; and thus recommend breeding and management practices that could improve production levels.
