Floating photovoltaics (FPV) represent a rapidly expanding deployment pathway, offering land-use advantages and distinct thermal and optical conditions relative to ground-mounted systems. Inland FPV installations, however, are constrained by the limited surface area of water bodies, making configuration choice and area-use efficiency critical design parameters. Despite the emergence of various FPV geometries, such as gable east-west layouts and floating single-axis trackers, there remains a lack of comparative performance benchmarks to guide configuration selection. This study conducts a comprehensive evaluation of three bifacial FPV configurations, south-oriented fixed (S-bFPV), east-west gable (EW-bFPV), and horizontal-axis tracking (HAT-bFPV), under identical approximate to 1 MWp and Mediterranean climatic conditions. Long-term field measurements are combined with a calibrated thermal-electrical model implemented in the System Advisor Model (SAM) to assess annual and seasonal energy yield, thermal behavior, and energy density. Results show that the HAT-bFPV configuration yields 1967.44 MWh annually, outperforming the fixed system by 12% and reaching seasonal gains of up to 30%, whereas the EWbFPV layout produces 13.8% less energy. In contrast, energy density favors the EWbFPV design, achieving annually 2908.15 MWh/ha-44% and 37% higher than SbFPV and HAT-bFPV, respectively. All configurations exhibit similar performance ratios (similar to 0.90), while the HAT-bFPV system experiences higher array capture losses during summer. These benchmarks provide actionable insights for FPV design selection, highlighting the trade-offs among tracking performance, spatial efficiency, and thermal behavior under real operating conditions.
Against the backdrop of the deep integration of clean energy and hydrogen production via water electrolysis, this study proposes a swirl pulverized-coal and hydrogen co-firing burner featuring the capability for online, flexible adjustment of both inner and outer secondary air swirl intensities, aiming for achieving low-carbon operation and flexible combustion control. Recognizing that central hydrogen injection into the core high-temperature recirculation zone enhances ignition and flame stability, this study investigates four representative central hydrogen blending schemes: a single-tube jet (Case 2), a two-layer small-orifice axial jet (Case 3), a two-layer small-orifice outward-expanding jet (Case 4), and a scheme involving an altered injection position (Case 5). Under a fixed hydrogen blending ratio of 30%, numerical simulations were conducted to systematically compare the flow and combustion characteristics. Results show that central hydrogen doping significantly reshapes the recirculation zone: compared to pure pulverized coal combustion (Case 1), the recirculation zone diameter shrinks to 0.61-0.83 times its original size, the flame elongates, and the peak temperature rises by over 300 K. The two-layer small-orifice jet structure promotes rapid hydrogen-oxygen mixing, thereby accelerating the reaction rates and shifting the high-temperature zone upstream. Although hydrogen doping effectively reduces the oxygen concentration at the furnace outlet and enhances the overall burnout rate, it leads to a significant increase in NO x emissions, reaching a maximum of 910 ppm. Among the schemes, Case 5 demonstrates superior performance in terms of intensifying mixing, shortening flame length, and accelerating reaction rates, yet further optimization with low-NO x control strategies is still required.
Brazil is a global leader in the use of eucalypt for multiple purposes, including charcoal production for energy and metallurgical applications. However, the effects of irrigation regimes on charcoal quality in eucalypt genotypes grown under semiarid conditions remain poorly understood. This study evaluated the energy quality of charcoal produced from the wood of five eucalypt genotypes cultivated under two irrigation regimes (12 and 36 months) in the Brazilian semiarid region. Four trees per genotype were sampled at 11 years of age, and 5.0 cm-thick stem disks were collected at 0 (base), 20, 40, 60, and 80% of the commercial height (minimum diameter of 6.0 cm). Carbonization was performed under controlled laboratory conditions. Physical, chemical, and energy properties of the charcoal were determined, and the data were analyzed using ANOVA and principal component analysis (PCA). Gravimetric charcoal yield ranged from 37.7% to 41.2%, and higher heating value varied between 6784 and 6921 kcal kg-1. Bulk density (350-0.430 kg m-3) was significantly affected by irrigation, with higher values under the 12-month regime. Clones GG680 and GG702 demonstratedsuperior performance, combining high bulk and energy density with low specific consumption, making them suitable for energy and metallurgical uses. PCA indicated that fixed carbon content, higher heating value, and density were key variables for genotype selection. This study provides novel insights by explicitly linking genotypic performance with water management strategies under semiarid conditions, addressing a critical knowledge gap and providing technical support for sustainable forestry.
Solar air heaters (SAHs) are widely used in low-temperature thermal applications; however, the performance of solar air heaters is primarily governed by the effectiveness of heat exchange between the absorber surface and the airflow. In practical systems, this interaction is often weak due to limited momentum exchange in the near-wall region. This study experimentally evaluates the performance and integrated energy, exergy, economic, and environmental (4E) sustainability of a novel serpentine spring-ribbed solar air heater (SR-SAH) that integrates combined turbulence generation and curvature-induced flow redistribution to improve near-wall transport behaviour and air-surface thermal interaction. Three configurations-a smooth duct solar air heater (S-SAH), a serpentine channel solar air heater (SC-SAH), and the proposed SR-SAH-were evaluated through separate experimental runs under identical outdoor conditions, with the smooth configuration used as the reference case over a Reynolds number range of approximately 2.1 & times; 10 & sup3;-1.1 & times; 10(4). The SR-SAH achieved a maximum thermal efficiency of 80.2%, an exergy efficiency of 4.56%, and a thermo-hydraulic performance of about 70.1%. Compared with the smooth configuration, the proposed design improved thermal efficiency by approximately 28.6% while maintaining acceptable hydraulic penalties. Lifecycle indicators further showed reductions of about 40% in both energy and exergy payback periods, indicating improved sustainability performance. These results demonstrate that the hybrid rib-curvature configuration provides measurable improvement in thermal and sustainability performance compared with conventional smooth and serpentine solar air heaters. Further research should focus on detailed flow-field analysis, geometric optimization, and long-term operational evaluation to further improve the effectiveness of hybrid solar air heater designs.
A CFD simulation study of five industrial-scale flow field designs (hereinafter also referred to as layouts) in a high-temperature PEMWE reveals distinct performance and water-deficiency behavior. The results indicate a positive correlation between current density and water concentration, which strengthens as voltage increases. Critical quantitative thresholds are established: when the local correlation coefficient remains below 0.35, no significant water deficiency occurs; between 0.35 and 0.8, current density decreases almost linearly with decreasing water concentration; above 0.8, water concentration falls below 10%, indicating severe local depletion. At 1.7 V, the pin-type flow field achieves the best performance with the lowest correlation coefficient (0.92) among the designs, reflecting superior water-distribution uniformity. Although the pin-type layout maintains a current density of 3464.33 A/m & sup2; at 1.7 V-only 1.0% lower than that of the best-performing serpentine layout (3497.44 A/m & sup2;)-it provides substantially more uniform water distribution. This work establishes the first fine-scale, threshold-based diagnostic framework for local water deficiency in HT-PEMWE. By systematically comparing five industrial-scale layouts under identical high-temperature conditions, we quantify the performance-uniformity trade-off, providing actionable engineering guidance for stack-level flow-field selection.
This paper combines experiments and numerical simulations to investigate the flame instability of low-hydrogen syngas (H-2/CO/air) in a vertical circular tube under hydrogen concentrations ranging from 1.26% to 8.38%. Experiments were conducted in a transparent acrylic tube, with a high-speed camera and pressure system recording flame propagation and overpressure data. The results show that increasing hydrogen concentration significantly modifies flame behavior: at low concentrations (HC <= 1.68%), stable, smooth laminar flames are observed, whereas higher concentrations (HC >= 6.29%) trigger turbulent structures, distorted fronts, and stronger instability with markedly faster propagation. Pressure analysis reveals that the peak overpressure increases substantially with hydrogen addition, while the transition period from primary to secondary instability shortens from over 220ms to less than 200ms. Frequency analyses show dominant frequencies shifting from approximately 50 Hz at HC = 1.26% to approximately 300 Hz at HC = 8.38%, accompanied by intensified energy concentration in the mid-to-high frequency range. Sensitivity analysis identifies CO + OH =CO2 + H as the most sensitive reaction under all conditions; chain-branching reactions such as O + H-2 and H + O-2 grow more sensitive with hydrogen addition, whereas the three-body reaction H + O-2 + M =HO2 + M exhibits an inhibitory effect whose negative sensitivity weakens as HC increases. This work offers quantitative insights into lean syngas combustion instability mechanisms in confined spaces.
The study employed thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry (TG-MS) to investigate the combustion kinetics and NOx emission characteristics of two typical waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) at oxygen concentrations of 21%, 30%, and 40%. The high-volatile sample (WPCB-I) was dominated by gas-phase combustion. Increasing the oxygen concentrations from 21% to 40% reduced the ignition temperature from 307.0 to 295.6 degrees C and the peak combustion temperature from 441.8 to 423.8 degrees C, while the comprehensive combustion characteristic index (CCI) decreased from 4.4 & times; 10-7 %/degrees C3 & centerdot;min2 to 14.2 & times; 10-7 %/degrees C3 & centerdot;min2. In contrast, the low-volatile sample (WPCB-II) experienced delayed combustion under high oxygen levels due to barriers from ash and metal oxides, with its main mass-loss stage shifting toward higher temperatures. NOx emissions from both types of WPCBs displayed a bimodal pattern, corresponding to the oxidation of volatile-N and char-N, respectively. Increased oxygen levels intensified the release peaks of NO and NO2 and shifted their release toward lower temperatures. Compared with WPCB-II, WPCB-I released NOx more intensively because of its higher nitrogen content, with characteristic peaks occurring at 335-383 degrees C and 442-535 degrees C, respectively. This research provides theoretical and practical insights for optimizing combustion control and NOx mitigation during WPCB recycling, supporting cleaner and more sustainable waste-to-energy conversion.
Although Fresnel lens solar collectors (FLSCs) with cavity receivers are extensively employed in low- and medium-temperature applications, the geometrical characteristics of the receiver exhibit significant effects on overall thermal performance. However, comparative experimental investigations of various cavity receiver geometries for FLSCs under real outdoor conditions remain limited. Hence, to optimize the cavity receiver design, the current study tested FLSC with various receiver geometries, including conical, spherical, and cylindrical. The fixed-focus FLSC with cavity receiver test rig was designed and tested in outdoor conditions of Mumbai, India. The optical-thermal model for an FLSC with cavity receivers is developed based on conjugate heat transfer between the receiver and surroundings. The model, validated with outdoor experimental measurements, was solved to predict heat removal factors ( FR ) and feedwater outlet temperatures ( Tf,o ) for different receivers. The result showed that the conical receiver exhibited the lowest overall heat loss coefficient ( UL ), resulting in the maximum Tf,o and FR of 58.52 degrees C and 0.66, followed by the spherical receiver (56.88 degrees C and 0.64) and the cylindrical receiver (55.29 degrees C and 0.62). Hence, the conical receiver was selected as the optimum geometry. Furthermore, it was found that solar intensity increased thermal losses ( Qloss ), while an increase in the mass flow rate of feedwater marginally influenced Qloss , useful heat transfer to feedwater, and Tf,o . Increasing coil length at constant diameter decreased Tf,o due to a larger exposed area for thermal losses, resulting in an increased UL .
The primary breakup in the near-nozzle region has a significant influence on the subsequent spray characteristics. However, due to the high-density nature of the diesel spray near-field region, the distribution laws of droplet velocity and size remain unclear. This study employed high-energy laser PDA to investigate the velocity and droplet size of high-pressure diesel sprays within a constant volume chamber, focusing on the influence of different radial positions within 10 mm downstream of the nozzle exit and varying injection pressures. Results indicate that droplets near the spray axis exhibit a concentrated distribution in terms of average velocity during the injection duration, with velocity fluctuations ranging within less than 30 m/s. When the injection pressure is increased from 40 MPa to 80 MPa, the droplet velocity increases from 270 m/s to 390 m/s. Droplets at this location are dominated by the primary jet generated by the high injection pressure and remain incompletely atomized, with large droplets in the size range of 10-15 & micro;m prevailing. The motion of droplets at the spray edge is primarily influenced by air entrainment, causing further droplet refinement. The average velocity distribution during the injection period spans a broader range, while droplet size is concentrated around 6 & micro;m. Droplets of different sizes exhibit a greater increase in velocity within the high injection pressure range, with relatively low sensitivity to the measurement position. Finally, based on the modified Stokes number calculation, the radial non-uniformity of the near-field spray is quantitatively revealed. For large droplets with diameters exceeding 20 & micro;m at the axis, the Stokes number is generally greater than 1, exhibiting strong inertial characteristics. In contrast, for small droplets below 10 & micro;m at the periphery, the Stokes number is less than 0.1, demonstrating excellent gas-phase following behavior. The findings successfully characterize droplet dynamics in the dense near-nozzle region, providing critical insights for understanding primary breakup, optimizing nozzle design, and improving spray simulations.
With the global shift toward low-carbon energy, biomass combustion offers a viable pathway for reducing emissions while utilizing renewable fuels. This study investigates the effects of particle size (<1mm, 1mm, and 3mm) and primary air fraction (25, 35, and 45%) on the combustion characteristics and emissions of wood chips, peanut shells, and rice husks. The results show that particle size plays a dominant role in combustion and pollutant formation. Fine particles (<1mm) promote rapid and more complete combustion, resulting in lower CO and NOx emissions. In contrast, coarse particles (3mm) lead to increased CO emissions and higher NOx due to incomplete combustion and poor mixing. Among the tested fuels, peanut shells produce the highest NOx emissions, while rice husks exhibit relatively low CO emissions. Primary air fraction affects combustion stability and local oxygen availability, further influencing emission characteristics. Overall, combustion performance and emissions are governed by the coupled effects of particle size, fuel properties, and air distribution. These findings provide guidance for optimizing fuel preparation and air staging in biomass combustion systems.
This study presents an integrated experimental and numerical investigation of a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal energy storage system using Rubitherm RT35 as the phase change material. The system is analyzed in both horizontal and vertical orientations to assess the impact of natural convection on melting behavior and energy storage efficiency. Heat is supplied through a centrally embedded tube modelled as an electric heat source, and the temperature distribution is recorded using resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) positioned across multiple planes and directions. In the horizontal configuration, heat transfer is driven primarily by radial conduction, resulting in slower melting and partial phase transition even after extended heating. Conversely, the vertical orientation promotes strong buoyancy-driven convection in the molten phase change material, significantly accelerating the melting front and achieving a complete phase change within four hours. Numerical simulations performed with COMSOL Multiphysics 3.5a accurately capture the transient thermal evolution and phase-interface progression, showing excellent agreement with experimental observations. The temperature contours further confirm the dominance of natural convection in the vertical setup. The results indicate that the horizontal configuration results in less than 50% PCM melting after 6 h, whereas the vertical configuration achieves complete melting within 4 h. Furthermore, an experimental investigation of PCM melting has been conducted to analyze the effect of latent heat extraction from the thermal energy storage system.
Gasifier fine slag (GFS) from entrained-flow gasifiers, a challenging byproduct, contains significant residual carbon, necessitating efficient, and clean utilization. This study systematically combined experimental analysis and numerical simulation to elucidate the physicochemical properties and combustion behavior of GFS in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers, offering a theoretical basis and engineering solutions for its valorization. Key findings reveal that GFS char and ash exhibit a notable physical separation tendency at high temperatures due to density differences and poor wettability. Residual carbon is preferentially enriched in larger GFS particles (>76 mu m) and demonstrates high reactivity, achieving complete combustion at a relatively low temperature of 646 degrees C. Considering GFS's Geldart Group A characteristics, a novel low-velocity fine-particle fast fluidization (LFFF) CFB combustion technology was proposed specifically for pure GFS. Model predictions confirmed the optimal flow characteristics and uniform temperature distribution under low fluidization velocities. Finally, a comprehensive CFB boiler plan (240,000 tons/year) based on the LFFF technology was developed, highlighting a promising pathway for the sustainable and clean utilization of GFS.
Laminar burning velocity (LBV) is a fundamental combustion property governing flame stability, safety, and performance in ammonia-based fuel systems. For ammonia/syngas/air mixtures, reliable LBV evaluation over wide ranges of fuel composition, equivalence ratio, pressure, and temperature remains challenging due to the high computational cost of detailed chemical kinetic simulations and the limited availability of experimental data. In this study, a fast and physically consistent surrogate modeling and deployment framework is developed to enable accurate and efficient LBV prediction under engine- and gas-turbine-relevant conditions. A hybrid database is constructed by integrating experimentally measured LBV data from the literature with large-scale one-dimensional premixed flame simulations generated using a carefully screened detailed chemical kinetic mechanism. The experimental data anchor physical trends and guide mechanism screening, while numerical simulations provide dense coverage of the multidimensional parameter space relevant to engineering analysis. Based on this hybrid dataset, a progressive three-stage model development strategy is employed, including baseline model screening, architecture and hyperparameter optimization, and weight-level refinement, resulting in a highly accurate and robust surrogate model based on a back-propagation neural network (BPNN). The final surrogate tool achieves a coefficient of determination (R & sup2;) of 0.995 on an independent test set with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 2.24 cm/s, while reducing the computational cost by more than four orders of magnitude compared to detailed kinetic simulations. Rapid parametric mapping demonstrates that the surrogate predictions preserve correct physical trends with respect to equivalence ratio, temperature, pressure, and fuel composition, and SHAP-based interpretability analysis further confirms that the model organizes input-output relationships in a physically meaningful manner. Rather than replacing experiments or detailed kinetic simulations, the proposed surrogate tool provides an efficient and reliable engineering-oriented solution for fuel screening, parametric studies, and preliminary combustion system design involving ammonia-based fuels.
The single-diode model is widely used in photovoltaic module analysis due to its favorable balance of accuracy and simplicity. However, its implicit nature presents challenges for simulation, particularly in large-scale applications. This work introduces a model-based photovoltaic module designed to handle faults under partial shading conditions. The proposed method employs the Lambert W function to derive an explicit current-voltage relationship. This approach eliminates the need for computationally intensive I-V curve simulations, ensuring both high accuracy and rapid convergence. Beyond performance modeling, photovoltaic module face reliability challenges from faults like line-to-ground and line-to-line faults. These issues are especially problematic under partial shading or low irradiation, where conventional detection methods are often insufficient. The proposed technique addresses these limitations by applying the Lambert W function to fault analysis. The method's effectiveness is validated through MATLAB/Simulink simulations using 6 & times; 4 and 3 & times; 2 experimental setups, demonstrating its performance across a range of operating conditions.
This paper investigates the isothermal co-gasification of lignite char (LC) and coffee grounds char (CGC) in a CO(2 )atmosphere. The effects of temperature, pressure, and particle size on the reactivity, synergistic effect, and kinetic characteristics were studied experimentally. The results indicated that higher temperature and moderate particle size significantly enhance the synergistic effect of co-gasification, while pressure mainly promotes the reaction rate but has a relatively limited influence on synergistic strength. The classical Random Pore Model (RPM) can accurately describe the LC gasification process, but for the CGC and LC-CGC, the Modified Random Pore Model (MRPM) is needed. The model parameters (pore structure constant phi , dimensionless power-law parameter p, and dimensionless constant c ) in the MRPM model can reflect the kinetic evolution process in the co-gasification reaction. Under varying temperatures and pressures, the kinetic model parameters for LC ( = 8.0 +/- 0.5) and CGC ( phi= 22.5 +/- 0.5, p = 4.4 +/- 0.5, and c = 1.22 +/- 0.05) remained largely stable. However, when particle size varied, the CGC parameters changed markedly ( phi= 22.2-28, c = 1.35 +/- 0.1). LC-CGC cogasification parameters typically fell between single-component values ( phi= 12.7 +/- 0.7, p = 4.4 +/- 0.5, and c = 1.25 +/- 0.02). These model parameters provide a theoretical basis for predicting the co-gasification reaction rate and evaluating synergistic effects.
The evaluation of photovoltaic (PV) assisted heat pump systems is currently hindered by a disconnect between thermodynamic quality and economic reality, as conventional metrics often function in isolation. To bridge this gap, the Exergo-Economic Performance Index (EEPI) is introduced as a unified metric synthesizing operational exergy destruction, capital investment, and useful thermal output. A standardized system was analyzed across five distinct climate zones utilizing a decade of hourly ERA5 reanalysis data (2015-2024). The analysis reveals a stark performance stratification: temperate climates with consistent heating demand, such as Tokyo and Berlin, achieved superior EEPI values (median similar to 0.105), outperforming the solar-rich region of Riyadh (median similar to 0.033) by a factor of 3. This quantitative evidence identifies a critical 'source-load mismatch' in arid and tropical climates, where the capital burden of underutilized heat pumps outweighs the revenue from PV grid exports. Validated via Leave-One-Year-Out cross-validation to confirm robustness against climate anomalies, the findings conclusively decouple solar irradiance from exergo-economic viability, establishing that thermal demand consistency is the governing predictor for the feasibility of hybrid heating systems.
This experimental study investigates the enhancement of pool-boiling heat transfer using a novel interrupted copper foam ring configuration on a horizontal tube in an Al2O3-SiO2 hybrid nanofluid. The impact of nanofluid concentrations (0.001%-0.1% Vol.), foam thicknesses (5 and 10 mm), porosities (85% and 90%), and pore densities (30 and 60 PPI) was systematically evaluated. Results demonstrate that optimal performance was achieved with a 5-mm-thick ring (90% porosity, 60 PPI) at 0.05% Vol. hybrid concentration. Under these conditions, a peak heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of 16.74 kW/m2K was recorded at a heat flux of 163.26 kW/m2. A maximum enhancement ratio of 2.01 (101% enhancement over smooth tube) was observed at a moderate heat flux (96.55 kW/m2), attributed to the synergistic effect of improved surface wettability and the strategic ring-gap arrangement. This configuration facilitates spatial decoupling of vapor/liquid paths, providing low-resistance axial and radial channels for rapid vapor escape, thereby eliminating vapor retention. Conversely, at 0.1% Vol., performance gain diminished due to nanoparticle retention and increased hydraulic resistance within the porous matrix. This ring-shaped design offers a superior alternative to foam coverage by balancing high nucleation site density with enhanced permeability, providing a highly efficient solution for advanced thermal management systems.
The study of coal seam temperature fields traditionally focuses on establishing the overall heat conduction equation of the coal seam and the gasification reaction of coal char, often ignoring the relationship with coal pyrolysis and the influence of heat absorption. In the complete gasification process, however, it is necessary to study the detailed pyrolysis and gasification characteristics of the coal seam. In this paper, the gasification process parameters of coal and rock are obtained by analyzing samples from a depth of more than 900 m. By considering the influence of coal pyrolysis and heat absorption on the evolution of the temperature field, a modified chemical percolation devolatilization (CPD) model is established based on the target coal samples. The results demonstrate that coal pyrolysis endothermy significantly suppresses the temperature rise rate and reduces the peak coal seam temperature by 35-45 degrees C compared with scenarios ignoring pyrolysis, verifying the strong coupling among pyrolysis, heat absorption, and temperature field evolution. The composition of the product gas and corresponding kinetic parameters are highly dependent on the coal molecular structure. Quantitative analysis shows that the semi-coke yield reaches its maximum at 550 degrees C, tar yield ranges from 11.2 to 13.1%, and the average carbon conversion rate during coal gasification is approximately 97.32%.
This study proposes a synergistic enhancement strategy that integrates built-in metal tube bundles with the coordinated regulation of operating modes and valve openings to improve the thermodynamic and energy performance of water-air co-container tanks. Through comparative experiments under single-tank, dual-tank, and multiple valve-opening conditions, the synergistic enhancement of this structure, combined with valve control, on the thermodynamic and energy characteristics was systematically analyzed. Experiments demonstrated that metal tube bundles could significantly suppress air temperature fluctuations in the tank, reducing the temperature amplitude by 26.9% in single-tank operation mode. In the dual-tank configuration, temperature variations in both tanks diminished by over 10%, indicating a progression towards isothermal behavior. Compared to Case C80, Case C40 saw reductions in air temperature rise of 21.7% and 21.6% in Tanks 1 and 2, respectively, and in pressure loss of 53.3% and 48.8%. In Case C40, the round-trip efficiency of the tanks reached 0.838, an increase of 16.2% over Case 1. This study provides a highly adaptable and easily controlled thermal management solution for water-air co-container tanks.
The aerodynamic characteristics and near-wake behavior of the full-scale National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 5 MW wind turbine are numerically investigated using the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes approach with the shear-stress transport (SST) k-omega turbulence model, considering yaw angles gamma = 0 degrees, 10 degrees, 20 degrees, and 30 degrees under a wind shear exponent n = 0.5. Results indicate that a large yaw angle (gamma) leads to a slight reduction in the average thrust on the blades, but amplifies thrust fluctuations. This is attributed to the alleviation of stall on the blade leeward surface in high-wind-speed regions with the increase in gamma. The interaction between the tangential component of incoming flows and centrifugal effects generates dynamic spanwise flow, which results in a significant asymmetry in blade thrust and torque between upward and downward rotations. Furthermore, the wind shear combined with streamwise eddies results in an asymmetric distribution of streamwise velocity in the near wake on a specific horizontal plane. Finally, yaw intensifies the velocity asymmetry in the near-wake region (x/D < 1.6) but mitigates it in the far wake (x/D > 2.0).
