Active packaging systems, which react either with the environment or with the food itself, are a new addition to traditional food packaging to improve food preservation. Consumer demand for natural foods with minimal processing has resulted in the integration of natural compounds, including catechins, which are polyphenolic compounds abundant in numerous sources like green tea, cocoa, berries, etc. These compounds are considered bioactive agents due to their high antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory potential. This review comprehensively analyzes catechin-based active packaging, covering catechin sources, physicochemical and biological properties, and fabrication techniques. It also evaluates the functional properties of these systems and their practical applications in food packaging. The main fabrication techniques, such as solvent casting, electrospinning, and melt processing are used, and each method has specific advantages in incorporating catechins into polymer matrices. The properties of packaging film, such as free radical scavenging, prevention of foodborne pathogens, better UV-blocking activity, and improved thermal stability are discussed extensively. Numerous studies have exhibited that catechin-based active film significantly helps to extend the shelf life of various food products such as meat, seafood, fresh produce, and dairy. Challenges such as the thermal instability of catechins, bitterness after consumption, industrial production, and safety concerns related to migration and toxicity still need to be addressed. The use of encapsulation methods and providing proper regulatory guidelines can create a sustainable and effective solution in catechin-based active packaging.
Biopolymer–microbe interactions have emerged as a central theme in the development of sustainable materials and next-generation therapeutic strategies. This work provides a critical and integrative analysis of recent advances in biopolymer-based systems designed to modulate microbial behavior, with particular emphasis on antimicrobial activity, biofilm regulation, and host–microbe compatibility. Unlike conventional reviews that primarily catalogue existing studies, this manuscript systematically evaluates the mechanistic foundations governing polymer–microbe interactions, highlighting how physicochemical properties such as surface chemistry, porosity, charge distribution, and biodegradability influence microbial adhesion, virulence, and resistance patterns. Recent experimental evidence demonstrates that rationally engineered biopolymers especially polysaccharide- and protein-based matrices—can selectively inhibit pathogenic microorganisms while preserving beneficial microbiota, offering a strategic advantage over traditional antimicrobial approaches. Furthermore, this review identifies key methodological limitations in current studies, including inconsistencies in microbial models and inadequate long-term performance evaluation, and outlines critical research gaps hindering clinical translation. By integrating material science, microbiology, and biotechnology perspectives, this work advances the field beyond descriptive frameworks and provides actionable insights for designing next-generation biopolymer platforms for sustainable materials and therapeutic applications.
This systematic review critically evaluates the mechanical performance, durability, processing routes, and industrial applicability of sisal fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in relation to their readiness for wider engineering and industrial implementation. The review analyzes and summarizes science articles published 2020, 2025 to identify the performance trends, technical limitations, and techno, economic constraints influencing the application of these composites. A PRISMA, based approach was implemented, which included systematic searches of Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar by using pre, set keywords, inclusion criteria, and clear screening procedures, to ensure reproducibility and quality control. The articles under review illustrate how sisal fiber composites provide a strength, to, weight ratio that is on par with glass fiber systems as well as a significantly lower environmental impact and a good cost potential. Mechanical performance and interfacial stability can be significantly improved, as demonstrated in the various studies, and consistently achieved by fiber surface modification, hybrid reinforcement, and processing condition optimization. At the same time, the study points to some of the previous issues, which include the composite’s moisture sensitivity, the variability in quality from one batch of fiber to another, a lack of datasets on long, term durability, and scale, up limitations associated with fiber grading, decortication efficiency, cycle time, and scrap rates. The findings highlight the increasing industrial utility of sisal fiber composites for automotive interior components, low, cost building materials, consumer products, and biodegradable packaging, also pointing out new possibilities in aerospace secondary and semi, structural applications. In general, this review outlines a clear, application, oriented plan that points out the necessity for consistent durability testing methods, fiber quality standards harmonization, and validated design data to make the large, scale and reliable use of sisal fiber composites for high, performance engineering sectors possible.
Experimental preparation of graphene like 2D silicon is a great challenge due to the dominant sp3 hybridization in silicon. We have synthesized quasi 2D crystalline silicon nanosheets by topochemical exfoliation of layered Zintl phases, which bear signatures of properties predicted theoretically. Quasi-two-dimensional silicon nanosheets were uniformly dispersed within a conducting polyaniline matrix to fabricate solid-state nanocomposites with varying silicon loadings. The resulting polyaniline–quasi-2D silicon composites were systematically examined for their structural characteristics and optical emission behavior. Notably, the nanocomposites exhibit intense photoluminescence at room temperature, with an emission efficiency significantly higher than that of pristine quasi-2D silicon. The functional characteristics of the nanocomposite can be tailored by adjusting the loading and spatial dispersion of the nanoscale components, the nature of the host matrix, and the interfacial interactions between them. This nanocomposite is a promising candidate for the development of efficient thermoelectric material and has huge potential for applications in electronics and sensing.
Food packaging films play a crucial role in maintaining food quality and safeguarding human health, making the development of advanced packaging materials an important research priority. Conventional petroleum-based plastic films suffer from poor degradability and may pose environmental and potential health concerns, while many currently available preservative films still exhibit limited freshness-retention performance. Therefore, the development of environmentally friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable, and efficient food-packaging materials is of great significance. In this study, coaxial electrospinning was employed to fabricate a core–shell nanofiber film by encapsulating resveratrol within gelatin/zein (GA/ZN) fibers, aiming to enhance the preservation performance of edible packaging films. The as-prepared films were systematically characterized in terms of morphology, wettability, and functional properties, followed by practical preservation tests using strawberries and bananas as model fruits. The results demonstrated that, compared with traditional plastic films, the incorporation of corn zein into gelatin-based nanofibers effectively extended the shelf life of the tested fruits by approximately 2–3 days at room temperature. In comparison with pure gelatin nanofibers, the average fiber diameter decreased from 1.67 to 0.91 μm, while the water contact angle increased to 105.2°, indicating enhanced hydrophobicity and improved barrier-related properties. The gelatin/zein-resveratrol nanofiber film exhibited 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) radical scavenging rates of 95.85 ± 0.11% and 94.90 ± 0.11%, respectively, and antibacterial rates of 91 ± 2% against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and 94 ± 1% against Escherichia coli (E. coli). These antioxidant and antibacterial properties contributed to delaying fruit deterioration and maintaining postharvest quality. Overall, this study provides a promising strategy for the design of edible, biodegradable, and bioactive nanofiber films and offers new insights into the development of sustainable active food-packaging materials for fresh-produce preservation.
Epoxy-acrylate hybrid systems are extensively employed in adhesives, coatings, and composites; however, conventional formulations often rely on toxic monomers such as glycidyl methacrylate (GMA). This study introduces a sequentially curable epoxy-acrylate hybrid system based on novel hybrid monomers containing both glycidate and acrylate groups, synthesized via the partial oxidation of a diacrylate. Radical polymerization of monomers with a glycidate content exceeding 80% yielded viscous prepolymers consisting of epoxy-functionalized polymers and residual low-molecular-weight glycidates. These prepolymers were subsequently cured with amines at ambient temperature to form crosslinked networks. The gel fraction exceeded 90% when cured with diethylenetriamine, demonstrating efficient curing. The resulting cured materials exhibited significantly enhanced lap-shear adhesion strength (>1.6 MPa) compared to those obtained from monomeric analogs (<1.14 MPa). This improvement is attributed to the synergistic effects of polar ester groups, flexible polymeric spacers, and a loose network structure resulting from the reduced nucleophilicity of γ-keto secondary amine intermediates, as supported by density-functional-theory calculations. This two-stage curing approach provides a GMA-free, ambient-curable polymeric epoxy resins, offering a safer and more versatile strategy for the molecular design of high-performance hybrid materials.
Natural polymers (NPs) are widely distributed in plants, animals, and microorganisms. They can be classified into three habitat-based groups, namely terrestrial polymers, marine polymers, and extreme natural polymers. This review summarizes their structural features, environmental adaptation mechanisms, and functional attributes. It also outlines the evolution of extraction technologies from traditional acid–alkali and mechanical methods to modern green solvent systems. The roles of physical modification and chemical derivatization in performance regulation and functional enhancement are examined. Artificial intelligence methods are introduced to support structure–property prediction, formulation design, and process optimization. Molecular dynamics and other computational approaches are also discussed to clarify the underlying mechanisms. Overall, as key materials supporting the green transition of industrial production, NPs are becoming a major focus in research on circular chemical resources. With continued advances in process optimization, artificial intelligence technologies and interdisciplinary integration, NPs are expected to replace conventional materials in a wider range of high-value applications scenarios and to achieve further breakthroughs in performance, thereby contributing to sustainable development.
Polymer-lipid hybrid-based solidified reverse micellar suspensions (SRMs) have gained increasing interest for topical drug delivery due to their ability to enhance solubility, stabilize bioactive compounds, and achieve sustained skin permeation. In this study, PEGylated SRMs were developed using a beeswax: Phospholipon 90H lipid matrix to enhance the solubility, stability, bioavailability, and wound-healing properties of a lipophilic extract of Calopogonium mucunoides (CM). PEG: lipid matrix ratios (1:0, 0:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3) were formulated and designated as CM1–CM5, with an unloaded matrix (CM6) as control. Physicochemical characterization included encapsulation efficiency (EE%), spreadability, pH, viscosity, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). In vitro release and excision wound-healing assays were also conducted. PEGylated CM.SRMs demonstrated tunable polymer-matrix interactions influencing drug loading and release behavior. The CM5, with the highest lipid content, showed maximum EE (77%) and optimal rheological properties for skin retention. FTIR and DSC confirmed successful molecular dispersion of CM within the polymer-lipid matrix without chemical incompatibility. SEM revealed rough and porous structures that supported prolonged and sustained release, with particle sizes in the nanoscale (27.02 nm), and release rates ranging from 48% to 90% over 6 h, depending on the PEG: lipid ratio. In vivo, CM.SRMs achieved significantly accelerated wound contraction (~99%) and enhanced epithelialization compared to the standard treatment (p < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that PEGylated polymer-lipid SRMs can improve bioavailability and provide sustained therapeutic action of phytochemicals at the wound site. This polymer-engineered delivery system offers a promising, sustainable alternative for wound management, particularly in resource-limited settings. However, the histological and other biomarkers-based validation are recommended.
This study reports a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-assisted surface functionalization strategy to achieve colloidal stabilization of rod-shaped ZnO nanorods and their uniform integration into Lyocell fibers via dry-jet wet spinning. ZnO nanorods are prone to aggregation due to high surface energy, limiting their antibacterial efficacy. We demonstrate that PEG molecules adsorb onto ZnO surfaces through hydrogen bonding and coordination, providing steric stabilization that prevents agglomeration and ensures homogeneous dispersion in the spinning dope. The optimized composite fiber with 3 wt% ZnO exhibits balanced performance, delivering inhibition rates above 95% against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, while retaining over 80% efficacy after 50 laundering cycles. Morphological and structural analyses confirm that PEG-mediated interfacial interactions facilitate stable nanoparticle encapsulation without disrupting the cellulose crystalline structure. Antibacterial mechanism studies further reveal that light-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation is the dominant antibacterial pathway, while Zn2+ release provides a secondary contribution. In addition, the antibacterial performance remains stable under different humidity conditions (30%–80% RH), indicating good environmental robustness. This work demonstrates a scalable and eco-friendly route to fabricate durable antibacterial fibers and highlights the broader significance of colloidal stabilization and interfacial engineering in functional polymer composites.
The urgent demand for sustainable energy materials aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7 has intensified interest in biopolymer electrolytes (BPEs). Many non-polysaccharide biopolymers exhibit low ionic conductivity and weak salt dissociation at room temperature, limiting their performance in sodium-ion energy storage devices. Polysaccharides such as guar gum provide abundant coordination sites that can enhance Na+ transport. This study investigates the electrical, structural, and electronic behaviour of guar gum–sodium perchlorate (guar gum–NaClO4) BPEs to establish structure–transport relationships. Biopolymer electrolyte films were prepared via solution casting using guar gum (0.5 g) with NaClO4 at six salt loadings: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 wt.%. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was conducted at room temperature for all compositions and at elevated temperatures (303–343 K) for selected samples (0, 30, and 40 wt.%). Structural properties were examined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), and crystallite size was quantified using the Scherrer equation. Electronic properties, including density of states (DOS) and frontier molecular orbitals, were evaluated using density functional theory (DFT) with the DMol3 module. Ionic conductivity increased from 9.13 × 10−9 S·cm−1 in the unadded salt guar gum sample (0 wt.%) to a maximum of 8.40 × 10−4 S·cm−1 at 40 wt.% NaClO4, attributed to enhanced NaClO4 dissociation and reduced bulk resistance. At 50 wt.%, conductivity decreased to 3.37 × 10−4 S·cm−1, indicating ion pairing. Temperature-dependent EIS confirmed Arrhenius behaviour, with the 40 wt.% sample exhibiting the lowest activation energy (7.61 × 10−20 eV). XRD analysis showed progressive amorphization with crystallite size reducing from 5.05 nm (0 wt.%) to 0.82 nm (40 wt.%), correlating with enhanced ionic mobility. DFT findings revealed strong guar gum–NaClO4 interactions and a significant HOMO–LUMO band-gap reduction from 6.6129 eV (unadded salt guar gum) to 0.3813 eV, suggesting improved electronic flexibility and salt dissociation. The combined EIS, XRD, and DFT analyses demonstrate that guar gum–NaClO4 BPEs exhibit strong structure–transport coupling, with 40 wt.% NaClO4 producing optimal ionic conductivity and molecular stability. These findings identify guar gum as a promising, sustainable host polymer for sodium-based solid electrolytes in next-generation energy storage systems.
During the preparation of carbon fiber reinforced carbon matrix (C/C) composites from resin based precursors, the glassy carbon derived from resin pyrolysis is difficult to graphitize into an ordered structure during carbonization and graphitization, which adversely affects the performance of C/C composites. To enhance the transformation of resin-derived carbon into an ordered structure, we employed a structurally ordered graphene-based material to modify a phenolic resin/carbon fiber precursor and designed two composite modification structures that are straightforward to implement in processing. The internal microstructure of the composites was characterized by XRD and SEM. The results indicate that graphene oxide was converted into reduced graphene oxide during the carbonization process, which enhanced the structural order of the composites after carbonization and graphitization. The graphene based material effectively promotes the transformation of pyrolytic carbon derived from resin into an ordered graphitic microcrystalline structure, thereby enhancing the performance of the carbon/carbon composites and demonstrating a favorable structural induction effect. After graphitization treatment, the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of the reduced graphene oxide/carbon fiber/carbon based composite materials increased by 8.5% and 12%, respectively, compared to those of the unmodified composite.
Materials sustainability is becoming increasingly important across advanced technologies, driving the development of environmentally friendly electrolyte systems. In this work, biopolymer electrolytes were prepared using Phytagel as the host polymer and varying concentrations of sodium perchlorate (NaClO4) as the dopant salt via the solution-casting method for sodium-ion battery applications. The prepared biopolymer electrolytes were characterised using various techniques to assess changes in their morphology and electrical performance. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms the crystalline/amorphous nature of the prepared biopolymer electrolytes, and the membrane with 40 wt.% NaClO4 exhibits a high degree of amorphousness. Peak-deconvoluted XRD analysis confirms that optimal NaClO4 loading (40 wt.%) induces maximum amorphisation in the Phytagel matrix, minimising crystallite size and crystallinity, thereby establishing a structurally favorable pathway for enhanced ionic conductivity. From electrical analysis, the ionic conductivity calculated for pure phytagel is 2.97 × 10–5 S.cm-1, and on addition of salt, the 40 wt.% of NaClO4 exhibits enhanced ionic conductivity of 2.41 × 10−4 S.cm-1 at room temperature. These findings emphasise the importance of optimising salt concentration to achieve an effective balance between structural amorphisation and free-ion availability. This work advances Phytagel-based biopolymer electrolytes as a sustainable and high-performance alternative to conventional polymer electrolytes, offering a viable pathway toward greener battery technologies.
Inflammatory liver injury represents a significant clinical challenge, characterized by a hostile immune microenvironment and extensive tissue damage. Although silymarin and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) show promise in treating inflammatory liver injury, their efficacy is restricted by the drug’s poor bioavailability while MSC therapy is hampered by low cellular viability under inflammatory stress. To overcome these challenges, we engineered a droplet-microfluidic-assisted platform to co-encapsulate silymarin and MSCs within uniform, biocompatible polyethylene glycol-norbornene (PEGNB) hydrogel microspheres. This design establishes a dual-functional scaffold that supports MSC survival by shielding them from the harsh milieu while enabling the sustained, localized release of silymarin. Crucially, we elucidate a synergistic mechanism wherein the sustained release of silymarin modulates the local microenvironment, and augmenting the paracrine activity of the co-encapsulated MSCs. This synergy is significantly supported by a marked elevation in the expression of anti-inflammatory factors, including Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β). Establishing an indirect co-culture via transwell inserts, we demonstrate that this bio-functionalized platform significantly mitigates Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced damage in HepG2 cells by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines, including Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) and Interleukin-6 (IL-6), while preserving hepatocyte metabolic stability against inflammatory stress. This high-throughput strategy offers a promising approach to modulate pathological stress microenvironments, driving advancements in precision regenerative medicine.
Polymeric hydrogels are three-dimensional hydrophilic macromolecular networks capable of retaining varying amounts of water, similar to the extracellular matrix (ECM). To effectively translate these materials into therapeutic actions, it is of importance to control their molecular design, structural architecture, and physical dimensions, ensuring that these factors are strictly optimized to meet the demands of therapeutic applications. Existing reviews mainly focus on specific hydrogel aspects, but there is a gap in translating hydrogel miniaturization into therapeutic potential. This review highlights developments in hydrogel miniaturization, focusing on microfluidic strategies for precise microgel control. Miniaturized hydrogels improve cell-material interactions, making them ideal for targeted drug delivery and regenerative medicine. By connecting these multiscale design and fabrication strategies with therapeutic performance, this review provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding how polymeric hydrogels can be engineered for biomedical applications. It also discusses challenges in the clinical translation of functionalized hydrogel systems and their future potential.
