Abstract Understanding how management practices interact with environmental conditions is critical for stabilizing cotton yield and fiber quality. A 2‑year field study (2024–2025) assessed the effects of tillage (conventional tillage [CT]; no‑till [NT]), irrigation regime (all‑row irrigation [ARI]; skip‑row irrigation [SRI]), and planting density (7, 10, and 13 plants m − 2 ) on cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.) yield and fiber quality. Year had the strongest influence on fiber quality, with 2025 producing fibers that were significantly longer (+2%), stronger (+3%), more uniform (+1%), but with poorer color grade (+12%) compared to 2024. Irrigation affected micronaire and color, as SRI reduced micronaire by 5%. NT increased seed cotton yield by 19%. Plant density influenced fiber quality through interactions; for example, plant density had an irrigation × plant density interaction for color grade. Overall, despite strong seasonal effects, context‑dependent interactions among tillage, irrigation, and planting density indicated that management could contribute to fiber quality variation across years.
Abstract Organic grain systems can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC), but tillage may limit SOC gain, particularly in humid subtropical regions. We measured active and total SOC pools to 60 cm after 3 years in four organic grain systems differing in tillage and fertility. SOC stocks increased 30.3%–38.6% from baseline across depths, yet total SOC did not differ among cropping systems despite contrasting C inputs (9.4–22.2 Mg ha −1 ). At 0–5 cm, active C pools were the highest in the Ecologically Conscious System (ECS) characterized by reduced tillage, extended cover cropping, and C inputs of 18.5 Mg ha −1 . Compared with the intensively tilled Maximum Yield System receiving 22.2 Mg C ha −1 , ECS had 10.8%, 24.9%, and 28.5% higher permanganate‐oxidizable C, water‐extractable C, and microbial biomass C, respectively. These findings suggest that adjusting tillage and fertility strategies can promote early active C gains that may support long‐term SOC accumulation.
Abstract Commercial biostimulant products are gaining momentum among growers as a novel way to promote crop health and yield while reducing pesticide and chemical fertilizer application. Although preparation instructions vary across manufacturers and products, most biostimulant products that contain living organisms lack detailed handling guidelines to maintain their stability prior to application. Any accidental contamination during product preparation could therefore lead to decreased product effectiveness. In this proof‐of‐principle study, we tested how this contamination affects microbial composition over time. In the short‐term, we demonstrate that products kept at room temperature are more reliable when applied within a day of preparation. While refrigerator storage provides the most product stability across years, we recommend ordering new products each year. Our findings show that storage practices directly affect living biostimulant product composition and therefore quality. These results provide growers and distributors with practical recommendations on handling biostimulant products to maximize their effectiveness.
Abstract Soil nitrogen (N) mineralization governs plant‐available N from soil organic matter and microbial turnover, and is typically estimated as potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) via anaerobic incubations or as N 0 and mineralization rate ( k ) via long‐term aerobic incubations. While these metrics are well studied, their spatial variability and spatial structures (spatial dependence and semivariogram parameters) appear absent in scientific literature. We conducted a systematic review using the Web of Science to identify relevant information on this topic. We examined 140 peer‐reviewed publications (1991–2024) matching search terms for spatial variability, geostatistics, and soil N mineralization. Our review revealed a substantial knowledge gap: Only one study addressed spatial variability structures of k or N 0 , and only six reported spatial variability of PMN. Reported spatial dependencies ranged from <2.3 to >470 m, varying by land use and ecosystem. This research gap, particularly for mineralization kinetics, warrants further investigation to inform agricultural and environmental modeling.
Abstract Sustainable livestock systems require managing trade‐offs and synergies across productive, socioeconomic, and environmental dimensions to meet rising global beef demand. We present a biophysical framework to analyze how management‐driven energy allocation is manifested through herd size and total and per‐head beef productivity. Global and national beef production trajectories (1961–2021) suggest that post‐2011 growth has been driven more by stock expansion (0.67% year −1 ) than by productivity gains (0.46% year −1 ), contributing to declining per capita beef production. Across regions (e.g., sub‐Saharan Africa, South Asia, and northern South America), reallocating resources from herd expansion (∼2% year −1 ) toward improving productivity of existing animals (over 900 million head currently operating below the global average of 48 kg carcass eq. animal −1 year −1 ) emerges as a key pathway to reconcile production and sustainability goals. While dependent on regional contexts, this strategy suggests a substantial opportunity to meet future demand and sustain per capita beef production.
Abstract Excessive vine growth in peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.) can limit fungicide spray penetration, reducing protection against foliar diseases. Prohexadione calcium suppresses vine growth and may improve spray distribution, but its effects on fungicide coverage in peanut remain unclear. A 2‐year field study (2024–2025) was conducted at the West Florida Research and Education Center, Jay, FL, to evaluate prohexadione calcium applied at 75% and 100% of the labeled rate on plant height, specific leaf area (SLA), and spray coverage. Prohexadione calcium significantly reduced plant height and SLA, indicating a more compact canopy with thicker leaves. SLA declined from 14.6 to 12.2 cm 2 g − 1 at the 100% rate. Mid‐canopy spray coverage increased at the 100% application rate, whereas lower canopy coverage was unaffected. These results demonstrate that prohexadione calcium can improve spray coverage in the peanut mid‐canopy. Future research should investigate whether these changes lead to reduced disease severity and yield benefits.
Abstract Pearl millet, Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone (formerly Pennisetum glaucum L.), used for food and feed, has pollen that attracts multiple insect species. In 2023, honey bees and wasps were observed foraging on or below the auricles of pearl millet in a Georgia field. In 2025, pearl millet was grown in a greenhouse and found to be secreting extrafloral nectar. This extrafloral nectar was collected and found to be composed of sugars, primarily sucrose but also glucose and fructose, as well as protein. Nectar droplets were seen at the tips of the auricle hairs, on the culm, and on the leaf sheaths. Large amounts of extrafloral nectar accumulated just below the auricle. Magnification of hairs on the auricle revealed the presence of multicellular hairs with bulbous bases. We conjecture that these bulbous structures may function as extrafloral nectaries, which drip nectar from the auricle down onto the culm and leaf sheath. Thus, we report the discovery that pearl millet not only provides pollen for insects but also may provide nectar.
Abstract Rice (Oryza sativa L.) accumulates arsenic when grown under flooded conditions; therefore, alternative water management strategies have shown promise in decreasing grain arsenic. We analyzed polished white rice grain from 103 field‐years of production for arsenic and cadmium. Fields were classified into either conventional flood, single aeration, or multiple aeration using measured water level. Only multiple aerations significantly decreased grain total arsenic and inorganic arsenic. Soil pH and clay content were negatively correlated with grain arsenic. Water management did not affect grain cadmium, which remained well below the Food and Agriculture Organization's Codex Alimentarius limit. Overall, 30% of rice grain samples exceeded the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's limit for inorganic arsenic of 0.1 mg/kg in infant rice cereals. When multiple samples were obtained from each field, the relative standard deviation of grain total arsenic was 20%. This study provides field‐scale validation of water management across different soils as a control on grain arsenic, although multiple aerations were necessary. Core Ideas We analyzed arsenic and cadmium in 103 field‐years of rice grown under different water management conditions. Multiple mid‐season soil aeration events were needed to decrease grain total arsenic, inorganic arsenic, and organic arsenic. 30% of samples exceeded the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) action level of 0.1 mg/kg grain inorganic arsenic. Soil pH and clay content were negatively correlated with grain arsenic. Grain cadmium remained very low even under multiple soil aeration events.
Abstract Henbit (Lamium amplexicaule L.) is a potential cover crop in the Central United States, but in agronomic literature it is a weed. Henbit is unusual for germinating in the fall, growing through the winter, maturing seeds, and then dying out in mid‐May. The short winter‐annual duration favors it for the role of a winter cover crop in rotation with summer field crops such as corn (Zea mays L. subsp. mays), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). This common plant is an opportunity for regenerative farming progress. The cost for seeds and management once henbit populations establish will be less than the cost for other cover crops since henbit volunteers readily from seeds at no expense. However, new research is needed to better evaluate the effects of henbit on soil health, cash‐crop yields, and soybean cyst nematodes and to optimize management as a cover crop. Core Ideas Henbit already functions as a cover crop in many fields from free‐of‐charge volunteer seeds. Competition with summer crops is minimal since it grows in the winter. The pros and cons of cover cropping with henbit need investigation. Best management agronomy practices are lacking.
Abstract Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions following slurry application are highly variable, partly as slurry creates localized soil hotspots where microbial activity and oxygen availability strongly constrain nitrogen cycling. Phenolic compounds released by plant roots have been proposed as biological nitrification inhibitors, but their effectiveness within slurry hotspots remains unknown. Here, we used medical microdialysis to deliver methyl gallate (MG), a simple galloyl ester and structural constituent of hydrolyzable tannins, directly into a defined slurry microsite to test whether biochemical regulation could mitigate N2O production at the scale where emissions originate. Slurry addition strongly increased CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions, indicating intense microbial activity and oxygen‐limited conditions consistent with denitrification dominance. MG did not significantly affect cumulative emissions of N2O, CO2, or CH4. The results suggest that denitrification driven by carbon‐induced oxygen depletion may have limited the detectability of any potential effects of MG on nitrification, although limited intrinsic effectiveness of MG under these conditions cannot be excluded. Core Ideas Slurry creates oxygen‐limited N2O‐producing soil microsites. Microdialysis enables targeted solute delivery to slurry bands. Methyl gallate did not reduce N2O emissions in slurry hotspots. Carbon‐driven oxygen depletion likely dominated N2O production.
Abstract Aggregate stability impacts important soil functions, including carbon/water storage and soil structure. Macroaggregate stability tests, using rainfall simulation or wet sieving, are commonly used, but microaggregate stability tests may be more applicable to subtropical, coarse‐textured soils. We compared different cover crops in two sites of different maturities within a commercial citrus orchard in southwest Florida to test the applicability of four aggregate stability methods for coarse‐textured soils. Macroaggregate stability tests (i.e., volumetric aggregate stability test, Cornell sprinkle infiltrometer, Eijkelkamp wet sieve apparatus) did not significantly respond to cover cropping. In contrast, all soil dispersion (SD) curve indicators significantly responded in one orchard, with more favorable values in the weedy grower standard relative to the non‐legume mixture. Also, most SD indicators were significantly and positively associated with soil protein, total carbon, and carbon mineralization. This study highlights the potential of SD indicators to inform soil health management in coarse‐textured, subtropical soils. Core Ideas The management‐sensitivity of four aggregate stability methods was tested on coarse‐textured, low carbon soils. Cover crops did not significantly impact macroaggregate stability indexed by wet sieving and rainfall simulation. Microaggregate stability indicators were responsive to management and correlated with carbon cycling indicators.
Abstract Anaerobic digestion (AD) coupled with carbon capture, utilization, and/or storage (CCUS) is a deployable bioenergy platform that supplies renewable energy and bioresources while valorizing biogenic CO2 for integrated carbon management on the pathway to net‐zero. Framing AD solely as a waste‐treatment technology undervalues its broader contribution to defossilization, particularly its capacity to directly substitute fossil‐based natural gas, fertilizers, and chemicals. Here, we reconceptualize the role of AD‐CCUS in future net‐zero policy frameworks by synthesizing recent life cycle assessment findings. We further identify priority research directions, including (i) developing energy‐water‐resource hubs to enable multi‐product ecosystems, (ii) advancing environmental–economic analyses to quantify ecosystem service values derived from bioresource valorization in AD‐CCUS systems, (iii) integrating AD‐CCUS into CO2 transport, storage, and e‐fuel networks, (iv) leveraging artificial intelligence, digitalization, and digital twins for performance optimization and emissions verification, and (v) establishing governance frameworks and market instruments that recognize biogenic CO2 as strategic carbon infrastructure. Repositioned in this way, AD‐CCUS emerges as a central pillar in the portfolio of solutions for a defossilized economy.
Abstract Farmers are showing a growing interest in soil health. Therefore, it is necessary to understand how and when indicators respond to changes in land management. Measurements of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen can take up to a decade to shift. However, it is unknown how other biotic markers of soil health (i.e., nematode communities) react. Here we use the long‐term agroecosystem research trial at the W. K. Kellogg Biological Station to determine which biotic indicators respond first to the implementation of sustainable agricultural management. High‐diversity perennial forage and native prairie had higher nematode abundances compared to monoculture crops with perennial forage also being compositionally distinct. Additionally, nematode abundance was higher in the aspirational corn (Zea mays) treatment than conventionally managed corn (p < 0.05). Mineralizable carbon (minC) was marginally greater in high plant diversity treatments (p < 0.1). Overall, nematode abundance, in combination with incremental changes in labile C, are indicators of rapid shifts in soil health.
Abstract Weed growth measurements, such as weed population density and biomass, are valuable but often time‐consuming, labor intensive, and destructive to collect. This study evaluated an innovative method using Canopeo, a mobile application, for its ability to estimate weed canopy coverage and compare it to traditional measurements in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. A method was developed to quantify weed canopy coverage by subtracting soybean coverage from total canopy coverage. Soybean canopy coverage was isolated by using a cardboard barrier. Results showed a strong positive correlation between Canopeo‐estimated weed canopy coverage and traditional weed growth parameters, including weed density (r = 0.78, p < 0.01) and weed aboveground biomass (r = 0.78, p < 0.01). The cardboard barrier method provided accurate weed canopy coverage estimations, particularly during early soybean development (V1–V2 growth stages), when effective weed control is critical. Core Ideas Weed canopy coverage correlated strongly with weed density and biomass. Stronger correlation was seen during early development stages of soybean. This canopy isolation method can be implemented to quantify weed canopies in soybean.
This study investigated the effects of natural environmental factors on growth and tuber production of Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze. Data were collected from 74 plots installed in natural vegetation across different climate and soil conditions in Burkina Faso. Results showed that the climate zone has a significant influence on total height, leaf area, and tuber weight of the species (p < 0.05, respectively), with the highest values in the rainiest zone. Soil texture exhibited a significant effect on tuber weight (p < 0.05). The highest tuber yield was recorded on sandy loam soils and the lowest on sandy clay soils, with mean values estimated at 20.72 +/- 23.48 and 9.6 +/- 4.13 kg ha(-1), respectively. Land cover, soil potassium, and phosphorus positively influenced tuber weight of the species, while only phosphorus significantly affected aboveground growth traits (total height and leaf area). Our findings could inform the domestication strategies of T. leontopetaloides in dry tropical areas and contribute to food security.
Abstract The global food system must confront the intertwined challenges of feeding a growing population, reversing environmental degradation, and improving nutrition. While past agricultural innovations improved yields, they often undermined sustainability and food quality. In response, we propose the 3N Agriculture framework—Net‐Zero, Nature‐Positive, and Nutrient‐Balanced—as an integrated strategic model to transform agriculture into a resilient, restorative, and health‐promoting system. Unlike siloed approaches, 3N Agriculture integrates climate mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and nutritional enhancement within a single coherent strategy. It calls for systemic changes in energy use, land management, biodiversity stewardship, and food production, aligning productivity with environmental and human health goals. The framework provides a practical pathway to move beyond fragmented implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals and secure food systems and landscapes for future generations. Core Ideas The 3N Agriculture framework unites Net‐Zero, Nature‐Positive, and Nutrient‐Balanced imperatives. Integrated 3N strategies address climate, biodiversity, and nutrition challenges simultaneously. Policies, markets, and knowledge systems are essential to scale 3N Agriculture across all levels. 3N offers a distinct, systems‐based pathway beyond regenerative and climate‐smart agriculture.
Abstract Short‐stature corn (SSC) may improve crop standability while maintaining yield potential relative to conventional tall‐stature corn (TSC). Modern SSCs range from 0.6 to 1.6 m shorter than TSC counterparts. Researchers compare hybrid types utilizing small borders to account for shading effects. But borders should account not only for shading but also for windbreak effects. With TSC adjacent to SSC, wind speeds over SSC could be reduced at distances of 25–30 times the SSC versus TSC height differential (∆H), based on estimates from windbreak literature; for height differentials of 0.6 m, wind speeds might be reduced 15–18 m leeward of the TSC. Lower wind speeds over SSC could reduce plant lodging and affect parameters including yield. These effects, if unaccounted, could inflate research results in favor of SSC over TSC. Researchers certainly should border plots by mitigating for not only shade but also windbreak effects. Core Ideas Short‐stature corn hybrids may improve standability and maintain yields. To compare adjacent short‐stature corn (SSC) and tall‐stature corn (TSC), use borders to account for shade and windbreak effects. Disregarding windbreak effects may inflate SSC yields and favor SSC over TSC. Including sufficient design and methodology information is necessary so readers can replicate experiments. This calls for research on windbreak effects in annual crops, like corn, with small ∆H values.
Abstract Legume cover crops (CCs) rely on a dynamic contribution of soil‐derived nitrogen (N) and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) to maintain optimum N status, yet how long‐term agronomic management shapes this relative contribution remains poorly understood. This study leveraged a 41‐year continuous cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) system to evaluate how legacy effects of tillage and N fertilization influence BNF, legume N nutritional status, and N sources in hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Using the 15N natural abundance method and multivariate analyses, we found that tillage was the dominant factor affecting N dynamics: no‐till (NT) plots exhibited higher N status, soil organic matter, soil‐derived N, and total N uptake than conventional tillage. Fertilization effects were less pronounced but modulated BNF efficiency. However, NT alone was insufficient to overcome N limitation under unfertilized conditions, as indicated by similarly low nitrogen nutrition index values and overlapping distributions in both CT‐0N and NT‐0N treatments, highlighting the need for integrated management. These findings underscore how legacy effects of long‐term practices shape N acquisition by legumes and support combining NT with crop rotation‐specific N fertilization to optimize N inputs and sustain CC performance in low‐input systems. Core Ideas Hairy vetch grown under conventional tillage was more limited by N than no‐till, with differences widening at higher N fertilization rates. Atmospheric N contribution was higher under conventional tillage than no‐till, with greater differences at higher fertilization rates. No‐till was associated with higher soil organic matter and soil N uptake, supporting improved legume N status. No‐till alone was insufficient to prevent N limitation in hairy vetch under unfertilized conditions.
Abstract While radioisotopic pool dilution is widely regarded as the most reliable method for estimating soil phosphorus mineralization (Pmin), high costs, low throughput, and safety requirements limit its use. We evaluated the potential of non‐radioisotopic approaches to estimating net Pmin by difference before and after aerobic incubation, analogous to potentially mineralizable nitrogen (N), using five common extractions (water, resin, Olsen, Bray‐1, and Mehlich‐3). Non‐radioisotopic methods generally failed to produce positive net Pmin rates (extractable P pre‐incubation > post‐incubation), ranging from 18% (resin) to 0% (Mehlich‐3) in the detection of positive net Pmin. When detected, positive net Pmin values measured as post‐incubation difference in extractable P were underestimated by a factor of 3 to 274 relative to net Pmin measured by the radioisotopic approach. These findings demonstrate that net Pmin cannot be estimated by difference in extractable P after incubation, and point to the necessity of radioisotopic approaches for accurate measurements of soil Pmin.
Abstract Soil health concepts emphasize soil aggregation and structure as central indicators of healthy, functioning soils, yet this emphasis carries an implicit acknowledgment rarely made explicit in models: aggregated soils exhibit nonequilibrium water flow behaviors through preferential pathways. Despite recognition of preferential flows, dating to 1864, and extensive development of nonequilibrium modeling frameworks (e.g., dual‐porosity, dual‐permeability, and multi‐region models), large‐scale modeling persistently relies on uniform, equilibrium flow assumptions. The soil science community possesses the theoretical knowledge and mathematical tools to describe nonequilibrium flows, yet practical barriers limit integration into soil health assessments. Bridging this gap requires developing practical parameter estimation protocols, augmenting existing soil‐health datasets with nonequilibrium flow characteristics, conducting intercomparison studies, and fostering collaboration between experimentalists and modelers. Evolving beyond static indicators toward mechanistic, process‐based dynamics may allow soil health concepts to become internally consistent with the inherent nonequilibrium nature of aggregated soils. Core Ideas Soil health emphasizes aggregation, yet aggregated soils inherently exhibit nonequilibrium flow. Large‐scale models still use equilibrium assumptions despite a century of nonequilibrium flow knowledge. Parameterization barriers prevent implementing nonequilibrium models at field and landscape scales. Bridging this gap requires practical protocols and recognizing soil health as nonequilibrium processes.
