Simile, metaphor, irony, and exaggeration are rhetorical elements that are widely used in the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyerahmadi. The current study aims to investigate these rhetorical elements in the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyerahmadi. After examining and analyzing the rhetorical features in a selection of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi's epic poems, it can be argued that the element of simile (sensory to sensory) has the highest frequency use, comparing the warriors to lions, tigers, wolves, and Rostam in terms of physical strength and fighting ability. Similarities are taken from the mountain environment, livestock life, animals, and birds where they live. Metaphor is another figure of speech that is used in the studied poems to show the fighting art of warriors and to summarize and simplify martial concepts.In the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi, lions, leopards, and naked snakes are metaphors for warriors or clan warriors. The use of irony in these poems is indicative of the quality of warriors and their readiness to fight more wars. There have been instances of exaggeration in terms of the description of ethnic heroes in order to show the glory and awe of their fighting. Keywords: Folk Culture, Bakhtiari People, Boyer Ahmadi People, Epic Poems, Imaginary Images. IntroductionThe existence of chaotic, warlike, rebellious regions, surrounded by impassable mountains and the battle with harsh nature and predatory animals has caused the epic expressions in the poems of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi to have a significant effect. Simile, metaphor, irony, and exaggeration are rhetorical elements that are very crucial in terms of image creation in rhetorical issues. The hypothesis of this research is that these elements are the main image-creation elements in the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi. With this in mind, this research tries to analyze the use of the most important forms of fantasy in a selection of the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyerahmadi. Additionally, it seeks to investigate which rhetorical elements are widely used in the epic poetry of Bakhtiari and Boyerahmadi. Accordingly, these rhetorical elements are first categorized and then analyzed by extracting examples of similes such as similes to hunting animals, similes to domestic and non-hunting animals, similes to mythological and heroic heroes, similes to natural elements, and so on.Library studies in journals and authentic scientific sites show that some of the studies conducted on the popular culture and literature of Bakhtiari and Boyerahmadi people are related to the subject of the present research in terms of content including Bait or Boyer Ahmadi's epic laments by Shahbazi (2018a), Descriptive and structural criticism of Bakhtiari's epic laments (Shokhins), a type of popular poem by Shahbazi (2018b), along with Hajianpour and Siahpour’s (2013) Reflection of nomadic politics Reza Shah in Boyer Ahmad's native poems and songs. However, so far, to the best of our knowledge, no independent scientific investigation has been done on the subject of this research. Materials and MethodsIn terms of purpose, the current study is fundamental, and in terms of data collection, it is based on field-library studies and qualitative content analysis and categorization of structured interviews. After the interviews were recorded, coded, and translated from the Lori dialect into Farsi, the materials related to the research subject were noted and analyzed. The research data (poems) have been quoted from folk poems in addition to printed sources. To select folk poems and also to recognize the correct form of some words, assistance was received from Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi speakers (in the form of 5-10 minute field interviews). The interviewees were selected from Shahnameh singers and narrators of folk and epic poems who were interested in participating in the interview and were mostly over sixty years old. Research FindingsThis research, based on library and field studies and employing qualitative content analysis and structured interviews, aims to analyze the rhetorical features in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry. It specifically focuses on examining and analyzing the application of the most important figures of speech in a selected corpus of Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry. The existence of turbulent, war-prone, rebellious regions, enclosed within rugged mountains, and the struggle against a harsh nature and ferocious animals have resulted in epic manifestations being strikingly prominent in the poetry of the Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi people. Simile, metaphor, irony, and hyperbole are among the rhetorical elements that hold significant importance in rhetorical studies and are considered the central elements in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmad epic poetry.The findings of the research indicate that the most frequent manifestation of simile in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry is the comparison of heroes' bravery, courage, and strength to predatory animals, domestic and non-predatory animals, mythological and epic heroes, and natural elements. This indicates a deep connection between Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi people and nature, and the mysteriousness of its elements in their ancient myths and beliefs.Lions, leopards, wolves, and snakes are among the animals used metaphorically in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi poetry to represent warriors. The presence of these animals in the habitat of the Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi people and their significant role as nature's ultimate warriors has led to their metaphorical use in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry. One of the primary reasons for the prevalence of such metaphors can be attributed to the living environment of the Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi people. The animals used as metaphors are considered to be forces of nature and are renowned for their ferocity during hunts and in times of danger. Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi poets have employed these themes to inspire and motivate their warriors, fostering a spirit of bravery.In Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry, ironies are clearly visible and mostly appear as repetitive and clichéd expressions. The metaphors used in Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi epic poetry are primarily related to concepts such as readiness for war, courage, fearlessness, the annihilation of the enemy, a thirst for battle, and victory. These metaphors, often drawn from the harsh nature and nomadic lifestyle of these regions, are extensively used in these poems through similes like lions, leopards, swords, and daggers. In addition to conveying meaning, these metaphors contribute to the rhythm and musicality of the poetry and enhance the martial and heroic spirit. The metaphors employed in these poems primarily refer to the qualities of a prepared and brave warrior, numerous battle experiences, and the grief associated with war. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, the following conclusions were drawn:Simile, metaphor, irony, and exaggeration have been among the most used figures of speech in Bakhtiari's and Boyer Ahmadi's epic poems. Simile is one of the most frequent elements and usually is taken from the mountainous environment and people’s livestock and agricultural life. It is mostly sense to sense, which can be attributed to the simple mind of the poets and audience of the poems, orality, recitation, and illiteracy of the singers.Bakhtiari ethnic heroes have been likened to lions and Rostam, and Boyer Ahmadi to wolves, snakes, dragons, and Rostam, and their warrior women to lions and tigers.Rostam and Bahram are among the heroic models that the warriors have been compared to. The high frequency of the words Rostam and Gerz shows that this epic character was a model for Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi warriors.Lions, tigers, wolves, and snakes are among the animals that are used as metaphors in their poems. The presence of these animals in the living places of the Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi people and their special role as superior warriors of nature have made them metaphorical in the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi.Ironic expressions used mostly refer to the quality of warriors and their readiness to fight more wars and to be mourners.There has been a great deal of exaggeration regarding the description of ethnic heroes to show the glory and awe of their fighting.
From the late 10th century onwards, a major movement emerged in Persian poetry, where innovation in themes became the dominant feature. The poets of the Indian style brought significant transformations to Persian literature by carefully analyzing elements used by poets of earlier periods and creating new and unique relationships between phenomena. These fresh connections can be studied in various dimensions and styles, one of which involves utilizing figurative and rhetorical elements. Naziri Nishaburi, as one of the pioneers of this literary style, played a prominent role in creating new themes. He experimented with figurative and rhetorical devices to construct fresh concepts, resulting in astonishing and innovative imagery. In his sonnets, the most frequently employed figurative elements include simile and personification, while the most common rhetorical devices are allegory, metaphorical reasoning, paradox, causal embellishment, and hyperbole—all of which contribute to the crafting of fresh poetic themes. Keywords: Indian Style, Figurative Elements, Rhetorical Elements, Personification, Naziri Nishaburi. IntroductionTheme creation is the most significant artistic construct of Persian poetry, which began in a new form in the 11th century AH and slightly earlier, continuing into the 12th century. These were the centuries during which the famous Indian style dominated the Persian literary sphere. This construct became the prevailing feature of poetry in this period, as the increasing use of novel poetic imagery, meticulous and precise observation of details, and the establishment of connections between unrelated elements through refined imagination led to the creation of astonishing works and a monumental transformation in the poetry of the era.This study examines the techniques of theme creation based on figurative and rhetorical elements in the sonnets of Naziri Nishaburi, a renowned poet of the 10th and early 11th centuries AH and a pioneer of the Indian style.Library studies from credible publications indicate that some works are closely related to the subject of this study, such as She’r al-Ajam or The History of Iranian Poets and Literature by Shibli Nomani (1984), An Analysis of Semantic Deviation in the Ghazals of Naziri Nishaburi Based on Leech's Theory by Sarvar Darabi (2014), and A Study of the Praises of the Prophet and the Ahl al-Bayt in the Divan of Naziri Nishaburi by Jafar Baglou (2015). However, no research has yet been conducted on the techniques of theme creation in the sonnets of Naziri Nishaburi. Materials and MethodsThe present research is a fundamental study conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, supported by library tools and relevant sources. It examines the most prominent techniques of theme creation in the sonnets of Naziri Nishaburi based on figurative and rhetorical elements. First, theme-creation techniques rooted in figurative elements are investigated, followed by an explanation and analysis of the techniques based on rhetorical elements. Research FindingsTheme creation is one of the most significant techniques in literature, which, based on imagination and the use of certain literary devices, highlights and enriches the text artistically. The most important element in the poetics of the Indian style is the creation of new themes. The poets of this style adopted a novel approach to express their thoughts, striving either to create innovative themes or to present old meanings in a new guise.In the works of Naziri Nishaburi, one of the most common techniques for theme formation is the use of figurative and rhetorical elements. Naziri employed fresh and unique methods in crafting poetic themes based on figurative elements. These innovative techniques are particularly evident in various forms of simile, implied metaphor, and allusion, setting his poetry apart from others. Simile and personification are two imaginative elements in Naziri's poetry and can be regarded as the foundation for other forms of imagery in his work.Another aspect of Naziri Nishaburi's theme-building techniques involves the use of rhetorical elements in the structure of themes. By employing devices such as metaphorical reasoning, paradox, allegory, causal embellishment, and so on, he created beautiful and unique themes. His method of crafting themes through rhetorical elements can also be observed in the works of Saib Tabrizi, which is considered one of the most important techniques for theme creation. Saib's sonnets are notably diverse in their theme-building techniques. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsNaziri Nishaburi is one of the pioneering poets of the Indian style who played a significant role in transforming Persian poetry and shaping a new approach. While benefiting from the eloquent language of the Iraqi style, he steered poetic language towards innovation and transformation. His art in this transformation manifested through the application of novel poetic themes. One of his techniques for creating new themes was leveraging the remarkable potential of imagery.Naziri, with the help of figurative and rhetorical elements, crafted themes that, while fresh, also paved the way for the Indian style's inclination towards complexity and subtlety. In the realm of figurative elements, he employed simile, personification, and allusion. With these devices, he opened up the greatest opportunities for originality and, by creating movement and dynamism in his poetic imagery, established delicate connections between objects, resulting in the creation of new themes.In the domain of rhetorical elements, the poet extensively used devices such as metaphorical reasoning, causal embellishment, allegory, paradox, and hyperbole, giving his language a new form and crafting unprecedented meanings. His poetic genius lies in the fact that he never repeated any of these figurative elements in his poetry. He utilized every ounce of originality he recognized in his works. To achieve this goal, he meticulously delved into the most intricate details, much like threading a needle.
Though Mashala-Khan in Harun al-Rashid’s Court is a known novel in contemporary satirical Persian literature, its picaresque features have never been systematically studied. This descriptive-analytical research investigates how such features in the narrative structure and characterization of this novel have been localized and what innovations in combining those features with Persian traditional narrative style are achieved. First, the narrative and episodic structure, the satirical language, and the protagonist’s actions are classified. Then, through a thematic analysis, the function of each feature (travel, poverty, trickery, and disguise) in the socio-critical approach of the text are discussed. The theoretical framework is based on Abrams and Geoffrey (2012) and Cuddens’ (1979) definitions. The findings show the episodes contain three balanced layers of verbal, situational, and structural satire that reveal a localized background to show the social and cultural inequalities of the time. Traveling in time is a symbolic quest for social justice. Poverty and trickery become the protagonist’s motivation through which a bitter satire and popular creativity is achieved. Besides, the disguises turn the obscure identity into a device for revealing the power structure and the corrupted bureaucratic system. This study provides a model for studying contemporary Persian picaresque texts. The model helps us to recognize a combination of Western features of the genre and Persian narrative traditions.
Bahram-e Ardebili has been influenced by Nizami's Layla and Majnun in his seven poems entitled Haft Peykar. He reinterprets portions of this lyrical masterpiece from the perspective of Layla and Majnun, a reading that engages the reader actively. By creating multiple meanings and providing more vivid imagery, the poet establishes a layered representation of Nizami, generating a text with multifaceted meaning that allows the audience to reinterpret the poem as if rewriting it. This descriptive-analytical research investigates the common and reciprocal relationships in the images and concepts of Nizami's Layla and Majnun and Bahram-e Ardebili's Haft Peykar. In this process of influence, Ardebili has produced a more visual and traditional-breaking poetry, reminiscent of Nizami’s imagistic thinking in his verse. Additionally, Ardebili's perspectives on concepts such as the union of lover and beloved, the death of friendship in pursuit of union with the beloved, hope for reunion, and references to aspects of the original narrative of Layla and Majnun by Nizami have also been influenced. Keywords: Nizami, Bahram-e Ardebili, Love, Influence. Introduction Bahram Ardabili, formerly known as Taher Alafi, was born in 1942 and is among the poets of the Other Poetic Movement and a signatory of the Volume Poetry Declaration. His collection of poems titled A Passerby in the Dreams of Butterflies has been published. Among the characteristics of his poetry are a nuanced language, the discovery of new and undisclosed layers of imagery, an emotionally rich semantic background related to mysticism and introspection, enlivening nature, and the highlighting and use of substitution techniques in sentence structures" (Tite, 2021, p. 53). Ardabili views the story of Layla and Majnun from a different perspective, which provides a basis for examining the process of influence; because meaning hinges on the discovery of what we refer to as ‘literary tradition’. In other words, Ardabili, drawing on Nizami in some of his poems, creates something new. Thus, exploring the relationships between the two works to uncover techniques and meanings is essential. This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizes library resources to investigate the influences of Layla and Majnun by Nizami on the poetry of Bahram Ardabili. It also analyzes the relationships between images and concepts in the poems of the two poets in order to uncover meaning. This is crucial, as part of the meaning relies on uncovering relationships between texts and considering literary tradition to reveal "deconstruction" in Ardabili's poetry. Intertextuality explains that no statement exists except as derived from another statement and that no assertion exists except as a quotation of another. In fact, intertextuality is the conscious use of all or part of a previous text in the present text (Ajieh & Ghaderi, 2020, p. 66). Materials and Methods This study, with a qualitative and analytical-descriptive approach, examines two texts: Layla and Majnun by Nizami and Haft Paykar by Bahram Ardebili based on the theory of intertextuality. The theory of intertextuality, first proposed by Julia Kristeva based on the ideas of Mikhail Bakhtin, emphasizes the interaction and connections between texts and demonstrates that no text exists independently of previous texts; rather, it is situated within a network of references, adaptations, and reciprocal influences. "Intertextual analysis examines the relationship of a text with other preceding or contemporary texts" (Kakavand Ghalenoei & Najjar Noubari, 2017, p. 47). To collect the data, the original text of both works has been reviewed based on credible versions, and then, through content analysis, intertextual elements are extracted and analyzed. This study aims to show how Bahram Ardebili, by rereading Layla and Majnun, has placed its romantic, mystical, and philosophical concepts in a new context, and what differences and similarities in narrative style, characterization, and themes exist between the two works. Research Findings The findings of the research indicate that these two works are not only independently significant in the culture of Persian literature but also are intertwined in a complex relationship with each other and other literary texts. The repeated use of motifs, characters, and similar structures between these two works clearly demonstrates intertextual influence and interaction. In Layla and Majnun, the concepts of love and madness are presented both as essential elements of the story and as spiritual and mystical ideas, which can be clearly related to Islamic teachings. This phenomenon is also evident in Haft Paykar, where Bahram Ardebili employs allegories and mystical symbols to portray complex lyrical concepts. The influences of classical Persian texts are clearly visible in both works. In Layla and Majnun, the story of Majnun and Leyli's love is reminiscent of the romantic tales in Shahnameh, where human relationships are subject to fate and destiny. This inclination towards narratives in which love stands as a powerful force against the laws of nature and destiny is also observed in Haft Paykar. Bahram Ardebili’s Haft Paykar specifically utilizes a multilayered structure in which the main story resides within various narrative layers. This approach allows the reader to understand how each layer of the story refers to another text. Similarly, in Layla and Majnun, the love story of Majnun and Leyli is heavily influenced by similar narratives in the history of Persian literature, particularly those that reference symbols of endless love and the failures that arise from it. The comparison of the main characters in both works is also noteworthy from an intertextual perspective. The symbols and motifs present in Layla and Majnun and Haft Paykar are interesting in their own right. In Layla and Majnun, symbols such as night, desert, madness, and flight often serve as markers of reaching perfection and knowledge. In Haft Paykar, there are similar symbols that depict love and the quest for truth and spiritual perfection. In both works, the intertextual relationships drawn from various texts and stories significantly contribute to the reconstruction and interpretation of the main concepts of these texts. Moreover, the semantic connections of these works with other cultural and religious texts, through the concept of “love” as a spiritual and destructive force, are especially prominent. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Bahram Ardebili, by establishing a connection between his poems and Nizami's Layla and Majnun, or in other words, by reinterpreting the lyrical epic of Layla and Majnun in the form of seven poems titled Haft Paykar, enhances its multiple meanings. Like Nizami, Ardebili regards imagery as the main component of poetry; this is something that Nizami openly acknowledged, referring to it as the essence of poetry. Ardebili demonstrates his belief in this matter by embedding imagery and creating extensive networks of connections among symbols. Ardebili’s perspective on the beloved has been influenced by Nizami. His beliefs in the union of lover and beloved, hope for reunion, the death of friendship in pursuit of the beloved, and the spirit of self-sacrifice for the beloved are among these influences. The reference to Majnun rescuing the gazelles in captivity and Majnun's calmness in meeting Leyli also points to the original narrative of Nizami's story. Nizami likens love to a breeze, and Ardebili also attributes this quality to love. On the other hand, Nizami does not see a place for advice or admonitions in love; Ardebili interprets love as containing awareness. Nizami provides an image of Hayoun and highlights his remarkable attribute of speed, and Ardebili also refers to the image of Hayoun and this characteristic. In terms of ideological discussions, Ardebili, like Nizami, believes in voluntary poverty and the afterlife, reflecting it in his poetry.
The negation question is one of the rhetorical questions that are widely used in language and literature. Poets and writers use it according to the situation to persuade the audience. The application of negation questions in Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam is also noteworthy, as the majority of rhetorical questions in this book are of the negation question type. Moreover, negation questions have unique characteristics compared to other rhetorical questions. Given these two points, the present research answers the question of how negation questions are strengthened with expressive and semantic methods to have a greater impact on the audience. This descriptive-analytical research is of a library type. It utilizes the principles of rhetoric, semantics, and logic in some cases. As the evidence extracted from the book of Amsal-o-Hekam shows, negation questions have sufficient power to emphasize the negative sentence, because they are accompanied by expressive possibilities such as allegory, allusion, and theological method. On the other hand, the content of some negation questions in Amsal-o-Hekam includes the premises of the reasoning, especially accepted premises in logic (Maghbulat), testimony (Motavaterat), and generally accepted beliefs (Mashhurat), which is why they have a special persuasive power. Keywords: Secondary Thoughts, Amsal-o-Hekam, Negation Question, Logic. IntroductionThis study examines one type of rhetorical question (i.e. negation questions) in Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam. The purpose of a rhetorical question is not to receive an answer but to convey a point or concept to the audience. In Dehkhoda’s collection, interrogative sentences, especially negation questions, are frequent; out of 729 interrogative sentences in the four-volume set, 256 are used to express negation, accounting for 36% of the rhetorical questions, which is a notably high proportion. The use of negation questions in Amsal-o-Hekam is considerably more frequent than in other literary texts. This high frequency raises two questions: 1) What is the reason for the abundance of negation questions in this work, and 2) What are their characteristics?Previous research shows that recent studies have mostly focused on extracting rhetorical questions from texts and identifying their main meaning, but rhetorical questions have not yet been analyzed specifically in Dehkhoda’s Amsal-o-Hekam. This study differs because it focuses solely on negation questions and employs both rhetoric and logic in its analysis. This dual approach is scientifically grounded because logical discussions are essentially linguistic, with the foundations of logic derived from language. This study answers these two questions using two tools: rhetorical analysis and logical analysis. Of course, the use of both rhetoric and logic is scientifically grounded, as “logical discussions are, in fact, linguistic discussions, and the foundations of logic are extracted from language” (Bateni, 1999, p. 2). This point is demonstrated in the present study. Materials and MethodsIn terms of purpose, the current study is fundamental, and its method is descriptive-analytical. First, all negation questions were extracted from Dehkhoda’s four-volume Amsal-o-Hekam. Then, among these negation questions, those that, from the perspective of rhetoric, involved allegory, allusion, or theological methods were separated. Finally, the negative rhetorical questions were examined according to authoritative books on logic and the premises of the reasoning. Research FindingsThe capacities of negation questions to influence the audience were examined in two areas: rhetoric and logic. First, the rhetorical capacities are discussed. In the negation questions found in Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam, allegories are frequently observed because a negation question is essentially an interrogative sentence aimed at obtaining the audience’s admission. Considering the factors and reasons embedded in the negation question, the audience agrees to the negation of a certain issue. Allegory, especially those well-known to the audience, serves as a form of evidence because allegory expresses an abstract meaning in a concrete form, thus possessing the power to persuade the audience. Allusion is also one of the rhetorical factors that enhances the effectiveness of the message on the audience, since in each allusion, a claim is made and reference is made to someone or something, providing an emotional and familiar implication for the matter at hand. The third rhetorical factor is the theological method. This has been considered one of the figures of the thought field, defined as “the theological method is that which establishes speech with reason and rational or proof and by citing indisputable accepted principles so firmly that it causes the listener’s assent” (Vahidian Kamyar, 2006, p. 135). Many negation questions are accompanied by the theological method.The logical capacities of negation questions are addressed. It is necessary to mention that in logic, propositions must be declarative, and interrogative sentences, being performative, cannot be evaluated for truth or falsehood. However, negation questions, based on implicative entailment, are declarative sentences because the main meaning of a negation question is a negation proposition. Regarding the capacities of negation questions, allegory is both a rhetorical and logical factor that contributes to their effectiveness. In logic, allegory is defined as “allegory means that the mind transfers a judgment from one object to another due to the existence of a common aspect between them” (Mozafar, 2010, p. 234). In addition, some negation questions are parts of the premises of the reasoning and therefore have a special capacity to influence the audience. The premises of the reasoning are like the materials from which syllogisms are constructed. A study of Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam showed that some negation questions, based on indication per nexum, correspond to some of the fourteen premises of the reasoning, namely accepted premises in logic (Maghbulat), generally accepted beliefs (Mashhurat), testimonies (Motavaterat), or imaginations. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The examination of negation questions in Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam shows that these rhetorical negatives are emphasized through various rhetorical devices. Some of these devices include the use of allegory, allusion, and theological methods. In Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam, there are 312 negation questions, of which 191 cases (61%) are accompanied by allegory. Besides allegory, allusion also serves as a form of reasoning and often persuades the audience even more effectively, since it is based on a historical (real or mythical) event. Additionally, many negation questions in Dehkhoda’s Amsal-o-Hekam are reinforced by the theological method. Furthermore, if some negation questions are considered declarative sentences based on indication per nexum, they serve as the premises of the reasoning. The proverbs and maxims cited from religious scholars, philosophers, and reputable poets, as well as commonly accepted proverbs among the people, are regarded as accepted premises in logic. Those conveyed through allusion and agreed upon by historians are considered testimony. Some allegories are regarded as persuasions. Wisdom based on Islamic principles is considered a certainty, and wisdom that is true to all or based on public interest or ethics is regarded as a generally accepted belief (Mashhurat). Therefore, negation questions in Dehkhoda's Amsal-o-Hekam can persuade the audience because they are reinforced by rhetorical devices and logical premises.
Roman Jacobson’s verbal communication theory, in which the main functions and roles (sender, message, and receiver) and secondary roles (topic, symbols, and communication channel) of language are considered, is one of the most consistent theories in the field of linguistics and literary criticism. Based on this theory, directing the message towards each of these roles causes the emergence of special functions such as emotional, persuasive, literary, referential, meta-linguistic, and empathy. In the study of Sana'i Ghaznavi’s quatrains, according to the six functions of language, it was found that in addition to the literary role, which all quatrains have due to the use of poetic elements, the emotional role also has the greatest function. In the emotional role in which the direction of the message is towards the speaker, the poet has expressed his emotions and feelings in a simple and intimate language regarding issues such as beloved, admired, or his opponents. Therefore, the purpose and centrality of the speech in these quatrains are with the sender (the poet) and the literary type of these quatrains is the type of lyric literature in which the structure of description is considered the most important structure and the poet has described categories such as love, lover, praise, man, world, and God. Keywords: Sanai Ghaznavi, Quatrain, Theory of Verbal Communication, Roman Jacobson. IntroductionSana'i Ghaznavi (d. 529 A.H.), is a famous poet of the 6th century. In addition to being considered a flow-making poet in Masnavi, odes, and ghazals, he is also a poet in the quatrains and opening new semantic horizons. He brought mysticism into the realm of quatrains and in this sense created a new movement in quatrains that were more romantic before him. For this reason, his works are among the texts that have been referred to as "the text of the moment of change" (Fottouhi, 2012, p. 230). In these quatrains, various themes can be seen such as romantic, mystical, philosophical, and moral, as well as praise, satire, witnessing, and chaos, which are usually divided into ‘light’ and ‘gray’ categories (Shafiei Kadkani, 2010, p. 25-34).In addition to mystical themes, his Khayamiyat is also worthy of reflection in this poetic form. The themes of Khayami, before Sana'i, are seen in other poetic forms (Islami Nadoushan, 1995, p. 122). Introducing these themes into the form of quatrains is very likely done for the first time by Sana'i. Sanai is also a pioneer in composing the quatrains of Shahreshob (Shamisa, 1984, p. 55). In this research, while examining the Sana'i quatrains based on Roman Jacobson's communication model, these questions have been posed:Which role is more important in these quatrains?What is the function of other roles in these poems?How does a dominant construction influence other constructions? Materials and MethodsThe method of conducting this research is the descriptive-analytical method, in which all Sana'i Ghaznavi’s quatrains have been examined and studied based on Roman Jacobson's model of verbal communication, and the six functions of language in these quatrains have been categorized and analyzed by mentioning the frequency. Research FindingsIt is rare to find a poem in which only one of the language roles is used, but in most instances, two or more language roles are present at the same time, and even in some cases, the language roles are separated from each other. According to Jacobson, what makes different messages different from each other is "the predominance of one of the functions of language over other roles" (Meghdadi, 1999, p. 623). In the analysis of Sana'i quatrains based on Roman Jacobson's communication model, it was found that in addition to the literary role that all quatrains have due to the poet's use of the quatrain format and the use of literary devices, the emotional role has the most function, which has influenced other roles of language. The most obvious structure in the emotional role is the structure of description, in which the poet has described his situation, his lover, his admirers, and sometimes his opponents. In addition to these two main roles, Sanai has also used other roles of language, i.e. persuasive, referential, meta-linguistic, and empathic roles. The most important structure in the role of persuasion is the structure of advice, which includes moral, religious, and romantic advice. In the referential role, the poet's point of view can be seen towards categories such as love, lover, human, world, and God. Considering these points, it can be said that Jacobson's theory of linguistic communication is an efficient and coherent theory in the analysis of literary works, which pays attention to both the structure and the content of the literary work. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAccording to Jacobson's model of verbal communication, Sana'i has used all the six roles of language in his quatrains. In the emotional role, Sana'i talks about his feelings in relation to his lover, praised, or his opponents. Therefore, his quatrains can be considered a type of lyrical literature, in which the most important element is description, and the most important structure in description is the herding structure, in which Sana'i complains to the herd and about his lover's cruelty. He pays attention to his lover's bad temper, bad language, cunning, trickery, reproach, and cuteness. The tone of lamentation and glory from the lover is sometimes to such an extent that it finds the side of burning and symptoms of the lover, and in some cases, it even comes close to satire. In addition to being proud of his lover, Sanai complains about destiny, luck, and sometimes from some of his friends and relatives. The predominance of the emotional tone in Sena'i quatrains is such that it has overshadowed other roles and functions of language.In the role of persuasion, in which the direction of the message is towards the audience and the structure of advice is considered the most important structure, in cases where the audience is a lover, the tone of the poet is not commanding, but is accompanied with a kind of desire and expression of romantic need. Of course, in cases where the audience is general, the poet's tone becomes commanding. In these cases, the most important recommendations are moral recommendations. In addition to the structure of advice, the structure of wish, which comes with a prayer verb, has a significant function in which the poet has a wish in the form of a prayer or a curse for his beloved, praised, or opponents. In addition to these roles, the poet has also used other roles of language, i.e. the role of meta-linguistics and empathy.
One of the most challenging issues among researchers in the field of Tasif or songwriting is the issue of the meter of Tasnif and its nature. Some consider the meter of Tasnif to be a syllabic meter; others believe that these meters are prosodic; and some emphasize that these meters are syllabic-stressed. This disagreement continues to the point that some, due to a lack of proper understanding of the structure and form of Tasnif, consider some Tasnifs to be without a meter. In the present study, we aim to investigate the multiple musical aspects of these Tasnifs using a descriptive-analytical method and focusing on the different and special structures of Tasnifs after the Constitutional Era. The outcome of this study shows that Tasnif, given its direct association with melody and rhythm, has specific musical requirements that are influenced by musical beats and Igha'at. The result of this is the creation of meters that we call ‘Ighaie meters’. Considering the melodic reading of Tasnifs, pauses, the tension of sounds, and the starting and ending points of the beats of Tasnif, leads us to ‘Ighaie meters’ that have unique characteristics.
The discussion of linguistic errors and the focus on correcting writing mistakes are common themes in many editing and writing guides. However, these resources often present linguistic errors without adequately addressing the fundamentals of orthography, leading to the inclusion of numerous subjective and personal comments. A comprehensive discussion of orthography necessitates an explanation of its underlying principles and foundations. This study aimed to establish criteria for orthography while critically reviewing the perspectives of Abolhassan Najafi, Khosrow Farshidvard, Mirshams-eddin Adib Soltani, and Nasergholi Sarli. The findings indicated that a crucial aspect often overlooked in the discussion of orthography was the acknowledgment of various styles and types of language. Among the recognized language varieties were administrative, media, literary, and scientific styles. Given the distinct subject matter and audiences associated with each type, it is essential to consider these differences when formulating orthographic principles. Additionally, attention must be paid to the evolution of language across different linguistic periods and the advancements in spoken language. Due to the fragmentation and lack of clear, definitive criteria in prior research, this study proposed a set of criteria for orthography. Keywords: Orthography, Standard Persian, Orthography Basics, Language Editing. IntroductionThe importance of "correct writing" is a common theme in many writing and editing books. Most of these texts offer guidance for enhancing writing by identifying linguistic errors. However, they often suffer from issues, such as disorganized content, subjective commentary, imposition of rigid criteria without considering different styles and contexts, and a lack of consistent methodology. These problems largely stem from a neglect of the fundamental principles of orthography. Until clear and uniform principles for orthography are established, we will likely continue to see a diversity of opinions and practices in this area.Given the absence of a scientific and methodical discourse on the basics of orthography, this study aimed to address the following questions:What criteria for orthography have been proposed in previous research?On what basis are the orthography criteria for a standard language determined?How can we suggest indicators for correct writing across various linguistic varieties?Some studies have, albeit sporadically, focused on the characteristics of standard language and relevant linguistic-structural issues concerning correctness. For instance, Ali Ashraf Sadeghi (1983) has generally discussed the concepts of correctness and incorrectness in linguistic forms. Ali Mohammad Haqshenas (1994) has explored the social roots of linguistic correctness, critiqued the educational system's flawed approach to language, and emphasized the importance of properly teaching calligraphy and writing style, as well as the challenges posed by orthography in elementary education. Zahra Zandi Moghaddam (2017) has provided a critique of "Bibliography of Right and Wrong in Language" authored by Ahmad Khandan. Materials & MethodsThis study aimed to review and critique the perspectives of Abolhassan Najafi, Khosrow Farshidvard, Mir Shams-eddin Adib Soltani, and Nasergholi Sarli while proposing criteria for orthography. Consequently, the methodology employed was both descriptive and analytical. Research FindingsThe studies revealed that existing sources, including books and articles on the topic of correctness in language—published under titles, such as "Standard Language", "Writing and Editing Rules", "Correct Writing", and "Let's Write Better"—lack a clear basis for determining right and wrong in standard language. With the exception of a few style guides, most authors focused solely on examples of linguistic and structural editing, such as the removal of clauses, deletions, foreign words, grammatical errors, excessive length, consecutive verbs, verb omissions, use of Arabic words in Persian, stereotypical expressions, slang, inadequate expressions, incorrect verb usage, failure to properly observe sentence components, and incoherence in sequential sentences. Notable scholars, including Abolhasan Najafi, Nasergholi Sarli, Khosrow Farshidvard, and Mir Shams-eddin Adib Soltani, had proposed specific, categorized, or general principles and criteria for correctness in standard language.Najafi's perspective was moderate; while he considered the history of language and established rules for correctness, he also acknowledged the evolution of spoken language. Conversely, Adib Soltani's approach did not account for spoken language, thereby overlooking its intrinsic qualities. Farshidvard adopted a prescriptive stance, asserting that the correctness of speech was contingent upon adherence to grammatical rules. In contrast, Sarli emphasized the communicative aspects of language, focusing on the effectiveness and adequacy of linguistic patterns in conveying meaning. A reflection on these perspectives indicated that some proposed criteria might not be universally applicable across all linguistic varieties. Discussion of Results & ConclusionA critical aspect that has not been adequately addressed in the discussions of orthography is the consideration of different styles and varieties of language. Standard language encompasses various forms, including administrative, media, literary, and scientific styles. Each of these types has distinct subject matter and audiences, making it essential to account for these differences when establishing principles of orthography. Many editing and discussion books on orthography have been created without regard for these variations. This study identified existing shortcomings and proposed criteria for orthography that included: consistency, attention to the morphological, syntactic, and phonetic features of the Persian language, consideration of the semantic relationships among sentence components and meaning transfer, linguistic economy, and acknowledgment of the historical evolution of language alongside the adaptation of speech and writing.
This study analyzes the rhetorical and argumentative structures of persuasive language in Rumi’s Majalis Sab’ah using Stephen Toulmin’s model of argumentation. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the research examines claims, grounds, and rebuttals within Rumi’s sermons to uncover how he integrates mystical and philosophical concepts into persuasive discourse. The findings reveal that Rumi employs two primary types of claims: interpretive claims (symbolic readings of natural phenomena) and causal claims (cause-effect relationships). These claims are supported by transmitted grounds (Quranic verses, hadiths) and intuitive grounds (mystical experiences). Rebuttals, though less frequent, enhance argumentative flexibility by contextualizing claims within cultural and theological frameworks. Statistical analysis shows that interpretive claims dominate (50%), followed by transmitted grounds (32%), intuitive grounds (9%), and rebuttals (9%). Rumi’s reliance on transmitted grounds reflects the religious epistemology of 13th-century Konya, while his use of metaphors and analogies bridges abstract mysticism with audience accessibility. The study concludes that Majalis Sab’ah exemplifies a sophisticated fusion of logical argumentation and poetic rhetoric, tailored to persuade diverse audiences through culturally resonant reasoning. Keywords: Majalis Sab’ah, Claim, Argumentation, Rhetoric, Persuasive Language, Rumi. Introduction This research addresses the intersection of mysticism, rhetoric, and argumentation in Rumi’s Majalis Sab’ah, a collection of sermons that exemplify the persuasive power of Persian mystical prose. The study’s primary objective is to explore how Rumi constructs persuasive discourse using Stephen Toulmin’s model, focusing on the interplay of claims, grounds, and rebuttals. Existing scholarship has analyzed Rumi’s mystical themes (Gholamrezaei, 2008) and linguistic styles (Safari Bandpi, 2024), but few studies apply modern argumentation theory to his prose. The research gap lies in understanding how Rumi’s sermons balance logical rigor with poetic expression to persuade diverse audiences, from scholars to commoners.The study’s significance stems from its novel application of Toulmin’s (1958) framework to Persian mystical texts, offering insights into the adaptability of classical argumentation models in non-Western contexts. Two research questions are:How does Rumi employ claims and grounds to validate mystical ideas?What role do rebuttals play in moderating absolutist assertions?The analysis is contextualized within the socio-religious milieu of 13th-century Konya, where sermons blended Islamic scholarship with Sufi symbolism. Konya, as a cultural crossroads of Persian, Islamic, and Byzantine influences, fostered a dynamic environment for intellectual and spiritual exchange. Rumi’s sermons, delivered to heterogeneous audiences, reflect this diversity by weaving Quranic exegesis, hadith citations, and poetic imagery into a cohesive argumentative structure. This study illuminates how Rumi’s rhetorical strategies resonate with both the theological expectations of his era and the universal appeal of mystical insights. By examining Majalis Sab’ah through Toulmin’s lens, the research reveals the structural logic beneath Rumi’s lyrical prose, contributing to global discussions on spiritual rhetoric. This analysis aims to deepen our understanding of how mystical discourse achieves persuasive impact across cultural and temporal boundaries. Materials and Methods The study adopts a qualitative-quantitative approach, combining textual analysis with Toulmin’s argumentation model. Data were extracted from Majalis Sab’ah through line-by-line coding, identifying 55 interpretive claims, 35 transmitted grounds, 10 intuitive grounds, and 10 rebuttals. Statistical tools (Excel) quantified the frequency of each component, while qualitative analysis contextualized their rhetorical functions. The coding process involved: Categorization: Classifying claims as interpretive/causal and grounds as transmitted/intuitive.Validation: Cross-referencing Quranic/hadith citations with classical commentaries.Triangulation: Comparing Rumi’s arguments with Toulmin’s criteria (Toulmin, 1958).Ethical considerations included avoiding anachronistic interpretations and adhering to the original Persian text (Mowlana, 2011). Research Findings The analysis highlights Rumi’s strategic use of argumentative components (Table 1): Table 1. Frequency of Argumentative Components in Majalis Sab’ahComponentFrequencyPercentageInterpretive Claims5550%Transmitted Grounds3532%Intuitive Grounds109%Rebuttals109% Key findings are: Interpretive claims dominate, reflecting Rumi’s symbolic exegesis of nature (e.g., dawn as divine revelation).Transmitted grounds derive authority from Islamic texts, aligning with Konya’s religious norms.Rebuttals mitigate absolutism, as seen in Rumi’s paradoxical treatment of sin and redemption. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsRumi’s argumentation in Majalis Sab’ah transcends rigid logic by harmonizing mystical intuition with scriptural authority. His interpretive claims invite multilayered engagement, while rebuttals (e.g., “sin leading to salvation”) reflect Sufi antinomianism, challenging conventional theological boundaries. The prevalence of transmitted grounds (32%) underscores the cultural weight of religious texts in 13th-century Konya, whereas intuitive grounds (9%) prioritize personal spiritual experience, aligning with the Sufi emphasis on inner revelation. This study demonstrates that Toulmin’s model effectively decodes the persuasive mechanics of pre-modern texts, bridging rhetorical analysis and mystical studies.The findings highlight Rumi’s rhetorical sophistication, as he tailors his arguments to resonate with Konya’s diverse audience, from religious scholars to lay devotees. His use of metaphors, such as dawn symbolizing divine truth, transforms abstract concepts into accessible imagery, while his strategic deployment of rebuttals ensures argumentative flexibility. This balance of logic and lyricism reflects the broader Sufi tradition of conveying profound truths through evocative language. The statistical dominance of interpretive claims (50%) underscores Rumi’s reliance on symbolic exegesis, a hallmark of mystical discourse that invites continuous reinterpretation. The integration of Konya’s religious culture, rooted in Islamic scholarship and Persian poetry, amplifies the text’s persuasive force. Future research could extend Toulmin’s framework to other Sufi works (e.g., Attar, Sanai) or explore comparative analyses across religious traditions, such as Christian mysticism or Buddhist sermons. Such studies could further elucidate how spiritual rhetoric adapts universal themes to specific cultural contexts. This analysis affirms Majalis Sab’ah as a masterful synthesis of argumentative rigor and poetic eloquence, cementing Rumi’s legacy as a rhetorician of the divine whose work continues to inspire across centuries.Limitations of the study include the focus on a single text and the subjective interpretation of mystical metaphors, which may vary across readers. The study also acknowledges the challenge of applying a modern framework to a medieval text, necessitating careful consideration of historical context to avoid anachronism.
Allusions (kenāyeh) are imaginary elements shared between literary and everyday language. It is natural that, as the contexts for the formation of allusions disappear and the philosophy behind their creation is forgotten, understanding some of them becomes difficult. The allusions that have formed regarding the word "pustin" (a fur or sheepskin garment) belong to this category. The present study, using a descriptive-analytical method, investigates some of the ambiguous allusions centered on "pustin" that have taken shape in Persian literary texts. Deciphering these allusions is instrumental in resolving ambiguity in certain texts. The findings of the research show that imprecision in the critical editing of texts, incorrect readings of texts, the copying and imitation between dictionaries and commentaries, inaccuracy in the reporting of these allusions in dictionaries, and a lack of attention to the specific context of the texts when reporting these allusions have led to the ambiguity and a failure to accurately grasp the meaning of texts that contain this word. Therefore, to resolve these ambiguities, a precise and scientific revision of commentaries and dictionaries, even a lexicon as prominent as the Dehkhoda Dictionary, is necessary and essential. Meanwhile, given the critical editions available for many of the texts from which these allusions were sourced, some of the paths to resolving the ambiguity of these allusions have been cleared. Consequently, it is necessary to rely on these texts to undertake a serious revision of the meaning of existing allusions in reference works and dictionaries. Keywords: Imagery, Allusion (Kenāyeh), Persian Texts, Dictionaries, Pustin. IntroductionThe use of the word "pustin" (fur garment) has a history as long as human history itself and has long served various functions in people’s lives. It is for this reason that diverse manifestations of "pustin" can be seen in the Persian language and literature. In the use of "pustin", a progression from a literal meaning to a symbolic one is evident. In a general overview, "pustin" has functions in various fields of Persian culture, civilization, and literature, the most important of which include: 1) As a type of attire for both war and festivity, which has been prominent from the most ancient historical periods to the present day; 2) As a theme-building element in various literary genres such as mystical, epic, lyrical, didactic, and other literary forms; and 3) It is the raw material for countless literary expressions that manifests itself in the form of various Imagery. What stands out most among the figurative and poetic elements when discussing "pustin" are the allusions that have been formed around it. In this study, several ambiguous allusions in this domain, which have been defined with uncertainty in dictionaries and whose decipherment is useful for understanding some ambiguous sentences and verses in texts, have been examined. Materials and MethodsIn this research, first, the allusions of the word "pustin" in Persian literature were identified by consulting Persian literary texts, dictionaries, and dictionaries of allusions. Then, several allusions that were subjects of debate and for which a precise meaning had not been mentioned in sources and references were examined and analyzed. The description, analysis, and critique of these allusions made a descriptive, analytical, and critical research method unavoidable. Therefore, a combined method was employed to investigate these allusions. Research FindingsPart of the ambiguity in the compounds and allusions recorded in dictionaries, which are sourced from Persian literary texts, is related to the reading of the verse; if the problem in reading the compound is resolved, the issue with the text will also be solved. This is the case of the ambiguity in the compounds "pīl-e postīn", "postīn kardan", and "sūkhtah-ye postīn" (the burnt fur garment). The allusive phrase "postīn be gāzor dādan" (to give the fur garment to the Laundress) and similar constructions are used to mean performing a wrong and inappropriate action. This meaning is expanded in Anvari's poetry, where its individual and social undertones are highlighted. In the poetry of Sanai, within the context of mystical poetry, "pustin" takes on a mystical semantic load and becomes a symbol of material attachments and dependencies. Therefore, in his poetry, "postīn be gāzor dādan", in light of this symbolic meaning, is used in the allusive sense of renouncing attachments, releasing materialism and worldly dependencies. This meaning is also used by Rumi.The allusive phrase "postīn be gāzor dādan" has been used in two different contexts. The first instance is in the works of Amir Mo'ezzi and Anvari, and the second is in Sanai and Rumi, after which this allusive phrase was forgotten in Persian literature. This represents a movement from the material to the metaphysical aspects, for various reasons, including the diminishing relationship between the fur garment and the Laundress. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAllusion is more closely related to the daily life of humankind than other imagery elements. It is for this reason that as human lifestyles evolve and their perspective on surrounding elements and phenomena changes, the allusions in a language also transform. This point, alongside the freedom of perspective on phenomena in literature, increases the speed at which allusions change. Therefore, to understand texts that deal with allusions, awareness of culture, history, civilization, and human ways of life, and attention to the transformations in these areas, is essential. Inattention to these characteristics, carelessness in the editing and printing of Persian literary texts, imprecision in recording allusions and their meanings in dictionaries, and inattention to the literary genre and the author’s intended goals have caused more errors to occur in the explanation of allusions than in other parts of language and literature.The mentioned mistakes create obstacles for the reader in understanding the precise meaning of texts where an allusion directs its meaning. The examination of several ambiguous allusions centered on "pustin" has shown that to resolve the ambiguity in this area, it is necessary first to provide a correct and reliable edition of the texts, and then, based on these texts and with attention to the context, to provide a precise meaning for the allusions. This meaning should not create complexity in conveying the author’s thought to the audience but should lead to their conviction and, of course, be useful in the scientific analysis of the text and its subtleties.
The present study investigates paradox as a cognitive phenomenon within the framework of conceptual metaphor and metonymy, challenging its conventional classification as a rhetorical device. Focusing on Persian mystical literature, the research explores how paradox functions as a dynamic meaning-making mechanism in figurative language. The primary aim is to redefine paradox through cognitive linguistics, demonstrating its integration with metaphor (para-metaphor) and metonymy (para-metonymy) in restructuring perception. The study seeks to: 1) identify the cognitive models underlying paradox, 2) analyze its interaction with other conceptual processes, and 3) illustrate its role in non-linear thinking and knowledge organization. A descriptive-analytical approach is employed, with data purposively sampled from Persian literary texts. Theoretical frameworks include conceptual blending theory (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002) and Ruiz de Mendoza’s cognitive modeling, emphasizing high-level abstraction and mental space networks. Paradox emerges from metaphorical contradictions (e.g., "death is life") and metonymic expansions (e.g., "weeping with laughter"), resolving oppositions through conceptual blending. It operates as a matrix-like strategy, enabling reframing and emergent meanings. Persian mystical texts exemplify this capacity to transcend binary logic and evoke multilayered interpretations.
The field of semiotics has evolved over several decades, exploring signs from various perspectives. Semiotics is a research method that seeks to derive meaning from form. Key elements such as opposition are fundamental in linguistics and semiotics, particularly in structuralism and post-structuralism, which focus on interpretation and meaning-making. The archetype of the Wild Woman, derived from Jung’s findings, is a contemporary theme. The word wild in its commutation refers to something that is untameable or uncontrollable. This archetype represents the primordial mother and a nurturing, wise figure. This study examines semiotics, opposition, and the Wild Woman archetype through the characters of Farank and Tahmineh. Within this framework, Farank symbolizes the benevolent mother in contrast to the malevolent element (Zahhak), while also sharing maternal qualities with Tahmineh. Frank embodies the nurturing mother, whereas Tahmineh represents the suppressive mother, positioning them in opposition. In this study, symbols serve as essential semiotic elements that enhance our understanding of the archetype. The semiotic analysis of symbols like Sepandarmaz, Anahita, and the cow as a source of sustenance in these narratives deepens our comprehension of the stories. The contrast of light and darkness reflects the irreconcilable struggle between good and evil, a foundational aspect of Iranian mythology, which can subtly be found in Farank and Tahmineh’s maternal role. Keywords: Semiotics, Wild Woman Archetype, Nurturing Mother Farank, Suppressive Tahmineh, Opposition and Similarity.IntroductionThis study examines the intersection of semiotics and the Wild Woman Archetype in analyzing mythological characters Faranak and Tahmineh from the Persian epic Shahnameh. Semiotics, which studies signs and symbols, provides a framework for decoding cultural and societal meanings in myths. The research highlights opposition and symbolism in shaping archetypes, referencing theories by Peirce (triadic sign model) and Ferdinand de Saussure (language as a relational system). Estés’ (2007) Wild Woman Archetype, central to the analysis, redefines female heroism through Jungian psychology, framing it as natural feminine power, resilience, and transformative journeys. Though superficially similar, Faranak and Tahmineh represent distinct aspects of this archetype. Faranak embodies resistance against tyranny (Zahhak), symbolizing collective female strength and agency. Tahmineh’s heroism delves into the personal and emotional dimensions of womanhood. Their contrasting roles underscore archetypal duality-collective defiance versus individualized struggle highlighting how myths encode gendered narratives. The study dissects symbolic elements (e.g., natural imagery, heroic deeds) and structural oppositions (power/submission, society/individual).Findings reveal Shahnameh’s mythic language, rich in symbols, aligns with Estés’ archetype, providing insights into ancient Persian notions of femininity. By positioning these characters within semiotic and archetypal frameworks, the research illustrates how myths preserve marginalized female narratives while challenging patriarchal constructs. Bridging semiotics, Jungian theory, and literary analysis, the study demonstrates the Wild Woman Archetype as a lens to reclaim and reinterpret female agency in cultural and historical contexts. Materials and MethodsIn this study, through library research and using a descriptive-analytical method, a semiotic analysis of the Wild Woman Archetype and the contrasting characters of Faranak and Tahmineh has been conducted. Research FindingsThis study examines the duality of the "nurturing mother" and the "restricting mother" by combining Saussure’s theories of signifier/signified and Peirce’s triadic model of the sign (icon, index, and symbol). Symbols such as Faranek (embodying fertility and resilience, aligned with Jung’s anima and the Zoroastrian Spandarmad) and Tahmineh (destructive maternal love) are analyzed. Signs like the cow (life-giving) and the mountain (a boundary between order and chaos) function as semiotic tools—through natural resemblance and causal relationships—to reinforce values such as fertility and resilience in collective memory.Furthermore, the heroic journey of Fereydun, guided by Faranak, illustrates the interplay between the anima (the feminine unconscious) and the animus (the masculine conscious). By re-examining women’s roles, this study challenges patriarchal narratives in Shahnameh and highlights the connection between myths and cultural-cognitive frameworks. It underscores how ancient symbols and archetypes continue to shape societal values and identity. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAccording to Clarissa Estés' (2007) Wild Woman Archetype presented in this research, several significant differences between Faranak and Tahmineh are highlighted. The concept of opposition—whether in myths with good versus evil, light versus darkness, or within characters to reveal deeper meanings—holds a special place in literary studies. Aspects of an archetype manifest in varied depictions. This archetype is described extensively in the book, showing similarities to ancient Iranian goddesses like Sepandaramaz, Anahita, and Dena. It represents the primordial mother and first being of the matriarchal lineage, with Faranak embodying all these traits, symbolizing the archetypal primordial mother. Although on the surface there are functional similarities between Faranak and Tahmineh, they differ in essence.The opposition of light and darkness, conveying the dichotomy between good and evil in Iranian mythology, is subtly evident in Faranak’s function. Faranak embodies the helper of good, standing against Zahhak. Both are described as wise in Shahnameh; however, Faranak’s wisdom integrates intuition. Both are eloquent, yet their purposes and outcomes in speech differ. Faranak makes multi-stage efforts to combat malevolence and unveil shadows. Her goal is achieving power and awareness, while Tahmineh’s sole aim is acquiring power. Their fundamental difference lies in the concept of the nurturing mother, embodied by Faranak, and the encompassing mother, embodied by Tahmineh. This distinction underscores the nurturing mother’s primordial role to strengthen and guide the hero or child, aiding the female hero’s transformative journey.
The term "wisdom" and its derivatives represent one of the most frequently used and fundamental concepts in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. This study aims to examine the concrete and tangible linguistic representations of the abstract and intangible notion of wisdom in Shahnameh. This study seeks to investigate the conceptual metaphor of "wisdom" as its target domain in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, utilizing the full induction method and a descriptive-analytical approach to address the following two research questions: 1) Through which types of conceptual metaphors is the target domain of wisdom conceptualized in Shahnameh? 2) What specific lexical items are employed in Shahnameh to make the concept of wisdom more tangible? The findings of the study indicate that the abstract concept of "wisdom" in Shahnameh is realized through ontological and orientational conceptual metaphors. The concretization of "wisdom" in Shahnameh aligns with the logic of heroic poetry and the possible world of the epic, in which Ferdowsi conceptualizes wisdom as kingdom objects such as "crown" and "throne" or heroic elements like "bow", "banner", and "axe".
Arash, the famous Archer and mythical-historical hero, is a significant absentee from Persian classical poetry, especially Shahnameh. However, in contemporary times, several poets and writers, including Bahram Beyzai, have adopted Arash's narrative. Beyzai creates the most distinctive version of this narrative by offering a modern approach and deconstructing the original narrative. Beyzai's Arash is not the renowned hero and archer but rather a stableman who transforms into a hero without any metaphysical support or physical strength, just by relying on the power of mind and heart. The present study examines the distinctive characteristics of the hero in Beyzai's narrative and, based on Lacan's psychoanalytic theory, analyzes the transformation of Arash from a stableman to a hero. The results show that the most critical differences between Arash in Beyzai's work and the original narrative are: the lack of support from divine forces, lack of extraordinary physical abilities, emphasis on an inner journey rather than an external one, and the focus on the power of heart and mind instead of physical strength. Studying the transformation of Arash's personality based on Lacan's theory shows two stages: the first is Arash's confrontation with the big Other, which separates him from his initial unified perception of the world and turns him into an alienated and split subject. The second and main stage is Arash's victory over the big Other during his symbolic ascent to Mount Alborz. This conquest enables Arash to break through the 'symbolic order' and attain the superior knowledge and power of a hero.
This study examines the trickster archetype within the narrative of Zāl and Simorgh in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. The trickster, a mythological figure characterized by ambivalence, shape-shifting, resourcefulness, and divine intervention, occupies a significant role across various cultural traditions. Drawing upon established theoretical frameworks, this research identifies Zāl and Simorgh as a trickster within Iranian mythology. The analysis focuses on key trickster attributes—including shapeshifting, wisdom, and the capacity to disrupt and reconstitute social order. Zāl, marked by his extraordinary birth and upbringing by Simorgh, embodies a liminal identity that facilitates intervention in pivotal events. Simorgh, in turn, functions as a supernatural guide and healer, contributing to the restoration of equilibrium and the revelation of hidden truths. A close reading of the Rostam and Esfandiar episode demonstrates how Zāl and Simorgh employ cunning and esoteric knowledge to challenge oppressive power structures and institute a renewed order. This study underscores the significance of the trickster archetype in Iranian mythic traditions and elucidates the roles of Zāl and Simorgh as agents of transformation and balance within the Persian cultural discourse. Keywords: Trickster, Zāl, Simorgh, Shahnameh, Mythology. IntroductionThe trickster archetype represents one of the most significant and beloved figures in world mythology, characterized by paradoxical qualities where positive attributes typically outweigh negative ones, though this balance varies across different mythological traditions. As liminal beings existing between worlds, tricksters challenge established laws, confront deities, and disrupt social and cultural norms. While often depicted as deceiving ordinary people, tricksters more importantly challenge those in positions of power, undermining the dominion of kings, heroes, and the powerful through cunning and artifice.This study examines the trickster archetype within the narrative framework of Zāl and Simorgh in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, positioning these figures within the broader context of Iranian mythology. The research addresses a significant gap in Iranian mythological studies, as the trickster concept, despite its prominence in global mythology, has remained largely unexplored in Persian literary scholarship. By applying established theoretical frameworks from folklore, psychoanalysis, mythology, and anthropology, this investigation seeks to illuminate the transformative roles of Zāl and Simorgh as agents of change and balance within Persian cultural discourse. Materials and MethodsThe methodological approach employs a comprehensive theoretical framework drawing primarily from the foundational works of Paul Radin and Carl Gustav Jung on the trickster archetype. Radin’s conception of the trickster as a “culture-bringer” who facilitates societal transformation from lower to higher levels of civilization provides a crucial analytical lens. Jung’s psychological interpretation, viewing the trickster as a representation of the collective unconscious and undifferentiated human consciousness retaining its animal nature, offers complementary insights into the archetype’s enduring significance.The analysis incorporates perspectives from various scholars, including Claude Lévi-Strauss’s structural approach to mythological dualities, Joseph Campbell’s hero archetype theory, and Mary Douglas’s anthropological insights on social order disruption. The study employs close textual reading of Shahnameh, focusing particularly on key episodes including Zāl’s birth and upbringing by Simorgh, and the pivotal Rostam and Esfandiar confrontation. Comparative analysis with trickster figures from other cultural traditions—including Loki from Norse mythology, Anansi from West African folklore, Coyote from Native American traditions, and Prometheus from Greek mythology—provides cross-cultural context for understanding the unique characteristics of the Iranian trickster manifestation. Research FindingsThe investigation reveals that Zāl and Simorgh collectively embody the essential characteristics of the trickster archetype within Iranian mythology. Key findings of the study include:Extraordinary Birth and Liminal Identity: Zāl’s albinism marks him as fundamentally different from birth, leading to his abandonment and subsequent raising by Simorgh. This unusual upbringing creates a liminal identity existing between human society and the supernatural realm, a defining characteristic of trickster figures.Shape-shifting and Duality: The relationship between Zāl and Simorgh demonstrates the trickster’s capacity for transformation and dual existence. Simorgh functions as both a physical being and Zāl’s spiritual essence, while Zāl himself bridges the animal, human, and divine realms.Wisdom and Problem-solving: Zāl’s renowned wisdom, acquired through Simorgh’s tutelage and his own dedicated study, enables him to serve as advisor and mediator in critical situations. His knowledge encompasses both earthly learning and supernatural wisdom, positioning him as a crucial problem-solver in times of crisis.Shamanic Attributes: Zāl exhibits shamanic characteristics through his ability to summon Simorgh via the ritual burning of the sacred feather, accessing supernatural assistance when confronting seemingly insurmountable challenges. This shamanic connection enables intervention in the natural order when necessary.Divine Intervention and Social Transformation: In the Rostam-Esfandiar episode, Zāl and Simorgh’s intervention challenges corrupt power structures represented by Goshtasp and Esfandiar’s ambitions, ultimately facilitating a restoration of proper governance and social order. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe findings demonstrate that Zāl and Simorgh function as a unified trickster entity, challenging oppressive power structures while maintaining cosmic and social balance. Unlike tricksters in other traditions who often act from self-interest, the Zāl-Simorgh complex operates primarily for societal benefit, distinguishing the Iranian trickster tradition. The Rostam-Esfandiar confrontation exemplifies the trickster’s role in exposing corruption and facilitating necessary social transformation. Esfandiar’s invulnerability, granted through Zoroastrian blessing, represents a sacred power corrupted by personal ambition. Zāl and Simorgh’s intervention—revealing the secret of targeting Esfandiar’s eyes with a double-headed arrow from the gaz tree—demonstrates the trickster’s function in challenging even sacred authority when it threatens social harmony. This episode reflects broader tensions between two political paradigms: the pre-Lohrasp tradition of balanced power between royal and heroic houses, and the Lohrasp-Goshtasp model concentrating all authority in the monarchy. The trickster’s intervention supports the restoration of balanced governance, suggesting Ferdowsi’s critique of absolute monarchical power. The comparative analysis reveals both universal and culturally specific aspects of the Iranian trickster. While sharing common features with global trickster figures—liminality, shape-shifting, wisdom, and social disruption—Zāl and Simorgh demonstrate unique characteristics rooted in Persian cultural values, particularly the emphasis on wisdom (kherad) and justice (dād).This study establishes Zāl and Simorgh as a distinctive trickster manifestation within Iranian mythology, contributing significantly to the theoretical understanding of the trickster archetype. The trickster archetype plays a vital but previously unrecognized role in Iranian mythological traditions, with Zāl and Simorgh embodying this function through their combined attributes and interventions. The Iranian trickster tradition emphasizes wisdom, justice, and societal benefit over the self-interested cunning often associated with tricksters in other cultures, reflecting core Persian cultural values. The Zāl-Simorgh complex serves as a mechanism for critiquing and transforming unjust power structures, particularly relevant to Ferdowsi’s historical context and his concerns about tyrannical rule. Recognition of the trickster pattern in Shahnameh opens new avenues for comparative mythological studies and a deeper understanding of Persian literary traditions. The study’s findings have implications beyond literary analysis, offering insights into mechanisms of cultural resistance, identity formation, and social transformation relevant to contemporary Iranian society. This research advances scholarship in Iranian mythology, comparative literature, and archetypal studies while demonstrating the continued relevance of ancient mythological patterns for understanding cultural dynamics and social change. Future research might explore trickster manifestations in other Persian literary works and examine the archetype’s evolution in modern Iranian literature and culture.
Sensuality is a figure of speech and a method of illustration in literary works, holding special significance in Persian language and literature. In this figure, one sensory state is intertwined with the methods and means of another, resulting in deviation. Saeb Tabrizi, as the most prominent and prolific poet of the Indian style, employed a diverse range of sensuality in his poetry. This approach not only enhanced the unique beauty of the Isfahani or Indian style but also contributed to linguistic, semantic, and aesthetic developments and influences in his work, widely, in Persian poem. In the current study, we focused on the various types of Sensuality in Saeb Tabrizi's sonnets using a descriptive analytics method and to examine the method and extent to which this figure of speech is employed in his poetry. The findings indicate that Saeb Tabrizi's Sensuality, both in terms of the combination of senses and concepts, exemplifies the Indian style clearly. Furthermore, the integration of Indian style, and applying this Sensuality with other figures of speech—such as symmetry, metaphor, irony, particularly allegory—has not only enhanced the imagery in Saeb's poetry but has also contributed to the coherence and beauty of his words.
Poetic license is a vital concept in any prosodic system and it is particularly prominent in Persian and Arabic poetry. Among these, the Taskin license stands out as one of the most important and frequently utilized licenses in Persian prosody. While it is also present in Arabic prosody, it is referred to by different names. The concept of Taskin as a metrical allowance was first proposed by Ibn Farakhan in the 6th century; however, the term "Taskin" was initially introduced by Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi in his work Mi'yar al-Ash'ar. This license permits poets to substitute two short syllables (UU) with a single long syllable (–). In the context of Molamma'at poetry—especially where the Arabic portions adhere to Arabic meter and the Persian sections follow Persian meter—Taskin plays a crucial role in establishing similarities between the two metrical systems. This study examined and analyzed the Taskin license in both Persian and Arabic prosody through the lens of the Molamma'at of three poets. The findings derived from a descriptive-analytical and comparative approach indicated that the prosodic elements of Idmar and Asab in Arabic prosody corresponded to the Taskin license in Persian prosody. However, application of Taskin in Persian prosody was more extensive. Additionally, Taskin had significantly influenced the frequent use of specific Molamma't meters in Persian poetry. Keywords: Persian and Arabic Prosody, Taskin, Molamma'at. IntroductionScholars of prosody generally agree that the foundation of meter in both Persian and Arabic poetry is quantitative, meaning it is based on the length of syllables. Consequently, many metrical features are shared between these two poetic traditions, one of which is the license known as "Taskin". Exploration of poetic licenses is crucial in any prosodic system and it is uncommon to find a poem in Persian or Arabic that does not utilize such licenses. These licenses enable poets to select between two metrical options based on their artistic preferences. Among the most commonly employed licenses is Taskin, which permits the poet to substitute two consecutive short syllables (UU) with one long syllable (-).Given the lack of independent studies focusing on this topic, it is essential to investigate it further. This study aimed to address two primary questions:What terms are used in Arabic prosody to refer to the Persian prosodic license of Taskin and what are the similarities and differences among them?What role has the Taskin license played in shaping and expanding the prosodic possibilities of Molamma'at in Persian poetry?To this end, the article was divided into two main sections: the first examined the Taskin license in both Persian and Arabic prosody, while the second analyzed its application in the Molamma'at works of three poets. Materials & MethodsThis research was categorized as a comparative study of prosody, employing a methodology that integrated historical, analytical, and statistical approaches. Research FindingsHistory of the Term "Taskin":The term "Taskin" was first introduced as a metrical license by Ibn Farakhan in the 6th century. Although he occasionally used the term "Taskin", he did not formalize it as a prosodic term. He referred to the transformation of "Mustaf'ilu" to "Maf'ulun" and "Mufta'ilun" to "Maf'ulun" as "Irhaf" and designated the resulting foot as "Murhaf". Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi also employed the terms "Taskin" and "Taskin Awsat". However, many contemporary prosodians, such as Khanlari and Najafi, were unaware of Khwaja Nasir's usage. It was likely that Shamisa was the first to adopt and popularize this term from Mi'yar al-Ash'ar. Examination of the Reverse of Taskin:Shamisa noted a distinction between Arabic and Persian prosody: the reverse of Taskin is applicable in Arabic but not in Persian. However, no Arabic prosodians have formalized this reverse. Generally, in both Arabic and Persian prosody, two short syllables serve as the standard, while a long syllable substitutes for the two short syllables. Role of Taskin in the Meters of Molamma'at:The quantitative foundation of meter in Persian and Arabic has facilitated the creation of successful Molamma'at (poems that combine Arabic and Persian lines). A common structure features the Arabic portion in the Wafir meter with the Persian segment in the same meter ("Mafailun Mafailun Faulun"). Taskin plays a crucial role in this context by transforming the Arabic "Mufailatun" into the Persian "Mafailun", thus preserving the aesthetic and rhythmic harmony of both parts. Discussion of Results & ConclusionIbn Farakhan was the first to mention Taskin as a metrical license in the 6th century. However, it was Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi who formally defined the term and Shamisa was the first to adopt and popularize it from Khwaja Nasir. In Arabic prosody, the concept most closely related to poetic licenses is Zihaf, with the Zihaf of Idmar and Asab serving as equivalents to the Taskin license in Persian prosody. Notably, the scope of Taskin in Persian prosody is broader as Persian poetry requires more frequent use of this license. This is primarily due to the characteristics of the Persian language, which lacks vowels and often employs more long syllables. Additionally, the predominant prosodic feet in Persian are numerous and frequently include two consecutive short syllables. Moreover, the reverse of Taskin—substituting two short syllables for one long syllable—is not applicable in either Persian or Arabic prosody. An analysis of Molamma'at, particularly in the works of Mujir al-Din Bilaqani, Rumi, and Khaju Kermani, revealed that poets of Molamma'at had extensively utilized the Persian Taskin license. Since this license was applicable in both Persian and Arabic prosody, even when it appears in non-primary feet in Arabic, the fundamental rule of Taskin—replacing one long syllable with two short syllables—was still recognized and accepted.
Persian prose, much like Persian poetry, has undergone significant transformations in structure, content, and literary forms since the constitutional period. One of the many genres introduced to Persian prose after the Constitutional Movement is the “short story”. This genre was first established in Iran by Seyyed Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh, with subsequent writers further developing the form. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad is recognized as one of the pioneers and leading figures in Persian short stories; he has also made notable contributions across various branches of Persian prose, producing valuable works in each area. Due to the distinctive linguistic, literary, and intellectual characteristics of his stories, he is regarded as one of the masters of contemporary Iranian prose. Al-e-Ahmad’s final collection of short stories, titled Panj Dastan, comprises five stories, three of which are reconstructions of memories from the author’s childhood and adolescence. In this descriptive-analytical study, data obtained from documents and library sources have been examined and analyzed to explore the intellectual style of the first three stories from a collection of five. The research findings indicate that these three stories incorporate many fundamental aspects of Al-e-Ahmad’s thinking style. These aspects include: 1) Critique of the educational system, 2) Representation of political events, 3) Influence of the contrast between tradition and modernity, 4) Attention to popular culture, 5) Narrative approach in storytelling, 6) Addressing issues and women’s problems, 7) Condemnation of poverty and suffering, and 8) A nostalgic perspective on childhood and adolescence. Keywords: Intellectual Stylistics, Persian Prose, Short Story, Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, Panj Dastan Collection. Introduction“Short Story” is one of the most important genres of Persian prose that emerged shortly after the Constitutional Revolution. Its founder is Seyyed Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh (1892-1997), who introduced this literary genre to Persian prose in 1913 with the publication of the short story collection Yeki Bood Yeki Nabood (Once Upon a Time). Following him, other writers such as Sadeq Hedayat (1902-1951), Bozorg Alavi (1903-1996), Sadeq Chobak (1916-1998), Ebrahim Golestan (1921-2024), Jalal Al-e-Ahmad (1922-1969), and others created numerous works in this genre, significantly contributing to its prevalence in Persian literature. Among these writers, Jalal Al-e-Ahmad stands out as a prominent figure in Persian literature. He has explored various forms of Persian prose, including stories, travelogues, autobiographies, social monographs, translations, and collections of theoretical and literary articles, producing enduring works in each category. In the realm of short stories, Jalal Al-e-Ahmad has authored 46 short stories across five collections. His prose, evident in his short stories and other works, is characterized by distinct linguistic, literary, and intellectual features, establishing him as one of the foremost contemporary Persian prose writers.This study focuses on the intellectual style of Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s prose, particularly in his final collection of stories, Panj Dastan (Five Stories) (1971). While previous studies have touched on some intellectual aspects of his works, none have delved into the specific topic of “Intellectual Stylistics in the Panj Dastan Collection of Jalal Al-e-Ahmad”. The research aims to identify and analyze the key stylistic traits of Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s prose in the intellectual realm, as showcased in the Panj Dastan Collection. The primary research question is: What are the evident criteria of the intellectual style of Jalal Al-Ahmad’s prose in the Panj Dastan Collection?This study is significant as it aims to uncover Jalal Al-Ahmad’s deeper and more entrenched views and beliefs from the latter stages of his life through an examination of the Panj Dastan Collection. Materials and MethodsThis study involves the description and analysis of data obtained through document searches and library resources. The statistical population of the study is the Panj Dastan Collection by Jalal Al-Ahmad, specifically the second edition (1977, published by Ravaq). This book comprises five short stories titled: 1) Goldesteh and Falak, 2) Farkhunda’s Celebration, 3) My Sister and the Spider, 4) American Husband, and 5) The Pomegranate Family, spanning a total of 79 pages. The research sample includes the first three stories, covering 58 pages (73.42 percent) of the volume and encompassing key narrative elements. Research FindingsIn the stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, eight of the intellectual foundations of Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s prose are utilized. Below are the titles of these foundations along with their brief descriptions:Criticism of the Educational System: Jalal Al-e-Ahmad critically examines the educational system in these stories, highlighting the need to address its flaws and shortcomings. His main critique revolves around corporal punishment and the necessity of eliminating it from the educational system, a theme more pronounced in “Goldesteh and Falak”.Representation of Political Events: Through “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, the author portrays significant political events such as the implementation of the laws “Discovering the Hijab” and “Uniformizing the Clothing of Iranian Citizens within the Country” during the first Pahlavi Government. These events and their aftermath are depicted in the lives of the society’s people in these stories. Influence of the Confrontation between Tradition and Modernity: The clash between tradition and modernity significantly influences Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s mental and behavioral framework, evident in all three stories. Attention to Popular Culture: The stories not only incorporate elements of popular language and literature but also draw from popular traditions and beliefs to enhance their structure. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s critical-reformist stance towards superstitious beliefs is palpable in these narratives. The Biographical Approach in the Stories: “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider” possess an autobiographical nature, shedding light on the author’s upbringing, development during childhood and adolescence, and his family members, particularly his father. Presentation of Women’s Issues and Problems: Jalal Al-e-Ahmad addresses crucial women’s issues in these stories, aiming to resolve them and improve women’s social conditions. However, at times, the portrayal of women in a superstitious light may come across as negative. Condemnation of Poverty and Misery: The author’s critical view on poverty and misery and their detrimental impact on the society is evident in parts of the three stories. Nostalgic View of Childhood and Adolescence: Despite being thematically rooted in the author’s childhood and adolescence, the stories reflect Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s nostalgic perspective, shaped by his later years. Discussion of Results and ConclusionAn analysis of “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider” from Jalal Al-eAhmad’s collection of stories reveals the intellectual stylistic elements present in his writing. These stories, inspired by the author’s youth, showcase various intellectual characteristics that underscore Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s ideological framework. In the etymological analysis of these intellectual characteristics, it should be noted that:Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, influenced by his experiences in his teaching career and the deep knowledge he gained about the educational system and its weaknesses, criticized the educational system in some of his stories, including the three stories of “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”.The representation of political events in numerous stories by Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, such as the three opening stories from the Panj Dastan collection, is due to the following reasons:Jalal Al-e-Ahmad lived during significant years and events in Iranian history in the 14th century.Jalal Al-e-Ahmad had a special social commitment to the society and its various issues.Jalal Al-e-Ahmad had an active and long-standing presence in the political arena, gaining valuable experiences and information from this involvement.The intellectual characteristic of being influenced by the contrast between tradition and modernity, which is evident in the three stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, as well as numerous other works by Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, stems from the fact that the confrontation between tradition and modernity was one of his most important mental challenges in real life, influencing him until the end of his life.The attention to popular culture, which is exemplified in the stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, as well as in other fictional works by Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, originates from the author’s personal interest in popular culture. The multiple monographs that Jalal Al-e-Ahmad created related to popular culture confirm this interest.The autobiographical approach in Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s stories, evident in the three stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, is a result of the author’s diverse experiences in different periods and areas of his life, often serving as the basis for his stories.In the stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, Jalal Al-e-Ahmad addresses issues and problems faced by women, specifically the two issues of violence against women and their illiteracy, which appear to reflect the author’s patriarchal thoughts in the later parts of his life.Condemnation of poverty and misery is another intellectual characteristic present in the three stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider”, as well as other fictional works by Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, stemming from the author’s social mission towards the society and its various problems.The intellectual characteristic of the nostalgic perspective on childhood and adolescence in the stories “Goldesteh and Falak”, “Farkhunda’s Celebration”, and “My Sister and the Spider” may indicate Jalal Al-e-Ahmad’s dissatisfaction, as a committed writer, with the political and social situation in the society, and its contradiction with his reformist and progressive ideas and ideals.
This study highlights the role of idioms and expressions in language acquisition and teaching as essential and basic tools for communicating in any language. Learning idioms, and their complexities and simplicity, creates a significant barrier for language learners because it involves interpretation and comprehension, as there are multi-layered meanings attached to cultural dimensions. This study investigated learners’ and teachers’ opinions on the importance of idioms and expressions in enhancing their linguistic competence and language skills, as well as the challenges faced in learning and teaching them. A qualitative approach was employed to dig into the participants’ experiences. To this end, eight teachers and twenty-seven English language learners from a private language institute were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. It was found that learners realized the importance of idioms in their journey toward fluency in the target language culture, though it was a long journey. This gives particular focus on context-enriched learning, dynamic learning, and exploring cultural studies to boost learners’ knowledge and use of idiomatic expressions. It's training meaningful images into a context for which learners construct a linguistic and cultural understanding of how to operate those images across their entire life span. This study suggests that idiomatic language be given due recognition and that processes be developed to adequately render idiomatic language relevant for improved language learning and acquisition.
Symbolism and symbolic representation serve as mechanisms for ambiguity creation, deepening meaning, engaging the reader in meaning-making, and transitioning from monosemy to polysemy. The advent of modernity, exposure to Western poetic movements—particularly Symbolism—and the oppressive sociopolitical atmosphere following the Constitutional Revolution have significantly influenced both the quantitative and qualitative transformation of symbols in Persian poetry. The interrelation and synergy of symbols, as well as the discovery of their structural connections through the extraction of "macro-symbols" and "organic symbols", provide novel methodologies for understanding the role of symbolism in contemporary Persian poetry. This study uses a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the structural relationships of symbols and symbolic networks within the poetry of Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei, identifying them as the most significant stylistic component of his literary expression. Through theoretical discussions and the extraction of micro-symbols (as fundamental quantitative units), the research delves into macro-symbols and organic symbols as structural symbolic networks in Mirzaei’s ghazals. The findings indicate that Mirzaei’s poetic symbols achieve meaning through systematic interconnections, wherein the interplay between organic and macro-symbols predominates. That is, the poet strategically positions recurrent macro-symbols at the core of one or multiple ghazals, utilizing them as organic symbols. Keywords: Symbol, Symbolic Networks, Organic Symbol, Macro-symbol, Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei. Introduction This research examines the symbolic structures within the poetry of Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei, a prominent neo-ghazal poet of the 1990s. The objective is a systematic analysis of the symbols and uncovering their interrelated patterns throughout his poetry. The scope of the study includes an investigation into the types of symbols employed, the organic structure of symbols within the ghazal, and their network formation across Mirzaei’s poetic compositions. The primary research question concerns how symbols interact within Mirzaei’s poetry to create a cohesive and meaningful network, and how these structural connections contribute to the comprehension of the deeper semantic layers of his poetry. A thorough examination of the symbolic system within neo-ghazal poetry and the presentation of a precise framework for its analysis are among the core objectives of this study. While extensive prior research has addressed the role of symbolism in Persian poetry, fewer studies have explored the symbolic networks and their structural relationships in literary texts. Works by Baraheni (2001) and Fotouhi (2006, 2008) in this field serve as foundational references for the present analysis. The four research questions of the study include: What connections exist among symbols in Mirzaei’s poetry? Can an organic and structured symbolic system be identified within a single ghazal? Which symbols can be considered the dominant macro-symbols of his poetry? What symbolic networks emerge within his poetry? This study is based on the premise that the symbols employed in Mirzaei’s poetry exhibit structured and meaningful interrelationships, and that their analysis facilitates the identification of symbolic connections and semantic frameworks within his poetic compositions. Additionally, the study addresses the evolution of symbolism in neo-ghazal poetry, providing a comparative perspective on stylistic patterns in contemporary Persian poetry. Materials and Methods This research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the symbolic structure in Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei’s poetry. The study is based on a content analysis of the collection Ghazal-e Hezareh-ye Digar, comprising 71 ghazals, conducted through library-based research methods. The structural analysis of symbols employs an inductive methodology. Initially, micro-symbols are extracted as foundational elements, enabling the identification of macro-symbols and organic symbols. Macro-symbols, due to their high frequency and broad semantic extension in Mirzaei’s poetry, play a pivotal role in his stylistic identity. Conversely, organic symbols emerge within the framework of a single ghazal and, through interaction with other imagery, contribute to the deepening of semantic layers. The study is centered on two primary analytical axes: Analysis of Macro-Symbols: Identification of symbols that frequently appear in Mirzaei’s poetry and transcend conventional lexical usage. Examination of Organic Symbols: Analysis of symbolic networks that develop within a single ghazal, influencing the overall semantic framework of the composition. The methodology involves a systematic extraction of symbols, their classification, and the examination of structural relationships among them. Utilizing textual analysis models, this research explores symbolic interactions across different poetic levels, with particular emphasis on ghazals where organic symbolic interconnections are more pronounced. Research Findings The study aims to explore the symbolic system in Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei’s ghazals by analyzing linguistic data to extract semantic networks of symbols. The symbols used in his poetry primarily fall into two categories: human-related symbols and environmental symbols. Human-related symbols encompass tools, travel, locations, time references, characters, and cultural elements, which are highly prevalent in Mirzaei’s poetry. This reflects the poet’s focus on urban spaces and the psychological dimensions of contemporary life. Objects such as mirrors, chairs, tables, windows, and umbrellas play a central role in shaping themes of identity, memory, anticipation, and existential exploration. Additionally, travel and associated elements such as trains, roads, stations, and bridges symbolize movement, transformation, and the desire to escape environmental constraints. Conversely, environmental symbols include natural phenomena, animals, plants, and celestial bodies. Frequently recurring elements such as clouds, wind, rain, the sea, and stones symbolize themes of impermanence, longing, sorrow, and hope. Unlike traditional Persian poetry, fish in Mirzaei’s works is employed as a metaphor for the modern individual and their social conditions. Another significant finding is the role of organic symbols in Mirzaei’s poetry. These symbols function as central thematic pillars within a ghazal, shaping surrounding imagery. Examples such as windows, travel, clouds, and tables form intricate symbolic networks that enhance semantic depth and influence interpretative frameworks. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings of the study indicate that symbols in Mohammad Saeed Mirzaei’s poetry attain meaning through macro-symbolic and organic interconnections rather than as isolated and fragmented elements. Dominant symbols include mirrors, travel, windows, fish, and chairs, which, when interacting with other poetic elements, construct intricate symbolic networks. Windows and travel represent aspirations for liberation and transformation, whereas mirrors and chairs reflect introspection and mental constraints. Additionally, natural and cosmic symbols such as clouds, rain, stars, and night significantly contribute to the emotional and philosophical dimensions of his poetry. From a Jungian psychological perspective, Mirzaei’s symbolism embodies an unconscious interplay between confinement and freedom, stillness and movement, past and future. The interconnections among objects and situations underscore the stylistic coherence of his poetic vision.
