Gender equity in sport, physical education, and physical activity is often treated as a problem of access and representation, but this framing can obscure the deeper structures that decide who is supported, trusted, recognized, and allowed to lead in movement systems. This bibliometric and science mapping review examined Scopus-indexed English-language scholarship from 2015 to 2025 using Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny and VOSviewer. The final corpus included 1,173 documents across 520 sources. Rather than merely documenting growth, the study shows how gender equity scholarship has developed around intertwined questions of participation, leadership, pedagogy, visibility, and knowledge production. The field is increasingly interdisciplinary yet still shaped by uneven systems of authority and recognition. The study advances a gender equity architecture agenda, reframing equity as a structural concern involving opportunity; authority; knowledge geopolitics; and intersectional accountability across sport, physical education, and physical activity contexts.
Background : Artistic swimming is a physiologically demanding sport requiring high muscular endurance, repeated underwater apnea, and precise technical execution. However, limited research has examined how these demands influence seasonal physiological adaptations in collegiate athletes. Purpose : This prospective, 8-month study investigated changes in resting metabolic rate, body composition, bone mineral density, pulmonary function, dietary intake, menstrual status, and energy availability (EA) in 12 female collegiate artistic swimmers. Athletes completed eight laboratory testing sessions from preseason (August) through the competitive season (March). Repeated-measures analysis of variance assessed changes over time. Results : Significant increases were observed in resting metabolic rate ( p = .026), resting metabolic rate normalized to lean mass ( p = .002), forced vital capacity ( p = .025), and total body bone mineral density ( p < .001), all with large effect sizes. Lean mass and fat mass fluctuated across the season, whereas total energy intake increased modestly ( p = .042). Carbohydrate intake demonstrated significant variation ( p = .009), though protein and fat intake remained unchanged. Despite these adaptations, all calculated EA values were <30 kcal·kg lean body mass (LBM) −1 ·day −1 , consistent with low EA. Additionally, 44% of athletes reported menstrual irregularities across the season. Conclusion : Findings suggest that artistic swimmers experience meaningful metabolic and pulmonary adaptations during training, alongside modest improvements in bone mineral density, potentially supported by supplemental resistance training. However, chronic low EA and menstrual dysfunction highlight persistent risks associated with Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport. These results underscore the need for targeted nutrition strategies and monitoring to support athlete health, endocrine function, and long-term performance in artistic swimming.
The purpose of this study was to examine the differences and develop a descriptive profile of maximal aerobic and anaerobic power in collegiate women’s rugby players between positions (backs and forwards) and competition seasons. Thirty participants were recruited in the spring (forwards = 16, backs = 14) and 26 participants were recruited in the fall (forwards = 14, backs = 12) through a Wisconsin Division II women’s rugby club. Participants performed a VO 2 max aerobic fitness test and a Wingate power test during each competition season. An independent t test with a Bonferroni correction was used to compare the differences between positional groups and competition seasons. Significant differences were found in mean power during the spring between forwards (494.53 ± 51.34 W) and backs (426.87 ± 69.46 W, p = . 004), as well as in the fall between forwards (496.96 ± 57.17 W) and backs (425.78 ± 61.19 W, p = .005). Absolute VO 2 was also significantly different in the spring between forwards (3.18 ± 0.32 L/min) and backs (2.77 ± 0.26 L/min, p = .001). During the spring season, forwards and backs had significant differences in weights. Backs weighed on average 63.91 ± 9.45 kg, whereas forwards weighed 77.67 ± 9.10 kg ( p < .001). No significant difference was found from spring to fall season for forwards or backs. This study demonstrated the need for studying female rugby players along with creating an anaerobic/aerobic profile for the sport.
This study examined how the timing of the academic calendar year affected wellness and performance variables on Division 1 female collegiate lacrosse athletes. We hypothesized that wellness (mood, sleep quality, stress, muscle readiness, energy, yesterday’s nutrition, and sleep duration) and performance variables (total distance, max speed, accelerations, decelerations, and high-intensity distance) would decrease throughout the semester. Data collection was conducted on 25 female lacrosse student athletes. These athletes completed daily self-reporting wellness surveys and wore GPS units during games and training sessions. Measurements were analyzed at 3 points in the semester: beginning, middle, and end. Mood, sleep quality, stress, and energy were all better early in the semester ( p = .001–.008). Sleep quality ( p = .047) and muscle soreness ( p = .002) were higher in the fall, but sleep duration ( p = .002) was lower in the fall. Performance variables were all different over time ( p = .001–.017). Total distance and accelerations were higher in the middle of the semester compared with the end, and athletes were fastest early in the semester. Decelerations were lowest at the end of each semester, and high-intensity distance was lowest early in the semester. Across seasons, athletes registered more total distance ( p = .013) and accelerations ( p = .008) in the spring, but the opposite was true for high-intensity distance ( p < .001). Findings suggest that the timing of the academic calendar influences both wellness and performance variables. Academic stress, specifically, could be a cause of concern in student athletes’ wellness and performance.
Introduction : The benefits of physical activity (PA) during pregnancy are well documented. This study aimed to determine how the knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of pregnant women in the Gulf region toward PA, shaped by cultural norms and systemic factors, influence their engagement in PA. Methods : This scoping review critically assessed the available data following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched for studies between 2018 and June 2025 that reported PA among pregnant women in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. Relevant data were extracted and narratively synthesized. Results : Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria, and all identified studies were quantitative cross-sectional surveys. No eligible studies were found for Oman or Bahrain, and minimal research was conducted on other Gulf Cooperation Council states. Most studies reported moderate to high knowledge levels, but actual PA participation was low. Common barriers included fatigue, time constraints, cultural norms, and limited healthcare provider counseling. Few studies examined specific exercise types or assessed policy or program impacts, and no randomized controlled trials were identified. Discussion : Pregnant women in the Gulf Cooperation Council region have adequate knowledge of the importance of PA; however, their level of engagement is low. Culturally tailored interventions, supportive policies, and further qualitative and intervention research are urgently needed.
In this narrative article, I offer my views on the place of women in sport and exercise psychology (SEP) over my 50-year career. Before SEP began to organize in the 1960s, and continuing through the 1900s, very few women had visible positions in SEP, and the men in SEP were mainly White/European with little cultural diversity. Similarly, our main journals and organizations were led primarily by men until very recently (the 2000s). We can find earlier advocates, specifically feminist and cultural sport psychology scholars, but they were often ignored. We have more women in our SEP organizations and leadership today, but it is not all women and not everywhere. Moreover, our research, as reflected in publications, has focused on performance and professional practice with elite athletes and less on youth, older adults, or any other nonathlete segments of the population. Although we still have far to go to truly be an inclusive SEP, we are progressing with promising signs for the future. The recent 2025 International Society of Sport Psychology World Congress in Hong Kong was particularly promising, with many women and men from around the world addressing important issues, often with underserved populations. Their continuing work can help SEP promote health and wellness through sport and physical activity for all people, all around the world.
Research on menstruation in sport has largely focused on its biological effects. Data on the influence of the nonphysical factors such as menstrual health (MH) practices in sport are missing. The aim of this study was to investigate the menstruation experiences, attitudes, and MH practices among South Sudanese women football players. Women and girls football players who registered for the 2022/2023 season in South Sudan completed a self-administered questionnaire comprising questions on menstrual experiences, attitudes, and MH practices. Of the 321 responses, the most commonly reported menstrual symptom was period pain ( n = 204, 63.6%), 28.7% ( n = 92) reported positive feelings, and 78% ( n = 249) reported negative feelings, with sadness the most common negative feeling ( n = 111, 34.6%). The most commonly used menstrual materials were disposable sanitary pads ( n = 140, 43.6%), but 33% ( n = 107) of players used alternative menstrual products such as old cloths and animal dung, and 88% ( n = 284) reported lacking money to buy menstrual products. Players continued their usual practices during menstruation ( n = 128, 40%), feigned illness ( n = 81, 25%), stayed home ( n = 39, 12%), or abstained from participating in football ( n = 49, 15%). Reasons given were lack of menstrual products ( n = 48, 15%), period pain ( n = 78, 24.3%), and nowhere to change menstrual products ( n = 29, 9%) or wash genital area ( n = 27, 8.4%). MH is influenced by sociocultural and economic factors, which may supersede the biological factors, especially in low resource settings. It is important to promote optimal MH practices for women football players in these settings to mitigate any negative influence of menstruation on football participation.
Involvement in University Women’s Volleyball necessitates the presence of training models that can ensure the development of both physical preparedness and technical skills, but empirical research evidence about these models from actual college settings is still scarce. In this regard, the present study evaluated three current university volleyball training settings—practice-intensive training, standard training, and control irregular training setting—for their effects on physical preparedness and technical performance in a 16-week timeframe. Participants in this study consisted of 200 young female athletes studying in one of the two universities in Kazakhstan, ranging in age between 18 and 24 years. Measurements included the following parameters: time of completion of 30-m running, vertical jump height, fatigue index, heart rates in rest and recovery, serve accuracy, serve-reception accuracy, and technical execution ratings. Practice-intensive training demonstrated the best combination of positive results in all these measures (faster sprint time, better jumping values, reduced fatigue index, better heart response, serve and reception accuracy, and technical execution). Standard training resulted in slightly less pronounced changes but in similar directions, while control group revealed no substantial shifts on most of these indicators. Analysis of correlations also indicated that higher levels of physical preparedness usually coincided with higher technical performance and vice versa.
Menstrual cycle length variability (MCLV) describes the degree of fluctuation in cycle length across consecutive cycles, accounting for the naturally occurring variation around a female’s mean cycle length. This study is among the first to quantify MCLV as a relative measure and examine its physiological expression in Indian female athletes, a population with limited existing research on menstrual cycle length. To address this gap, MCLV, bone mineral density, serum iron, and vitamin D were examined in 60 Indian female combat athlete (30 boxers, 30 judokas) over a 3-month period. MCLV was derived from individual mean cycle length and cycle-to-cycle variation calculated using self-tracked period dates. Athletes were grouped by training experience, weight category, and MCLV level (>15% vs. <15%). Within the present cohort, an MCLV > 15% consistently corresponded to an approximate fluctuation of 5 days across consecutive cycles. Younger and less experienced athletes exhibited greater MCLV ( p = .002). Athletes with high MCLV also demonstrated lower bone mineral density than those with lower variability ( p = .03). No significant differences were observed for serum iron or vitamin D, though menstrual cycle length showed a modest positive association with vitamin D ( r = .279; p < .05). Longer cycles were associated with lower body mass ( r = −.264; p < .05). These findings support the use of MCLV as an exploratory metric within longitudinal menstrual cycle tracking in female athletes. Incorporating cycle variability alongside routine monitoring may provide additional context for informed menstrual health assessment and athlete support practices. Further longitudinal research is needed to refine variability thresholds and clarify underlying mechanisms.
The inclusion of transgender women in elite sport has sparked polarized debates, particularly in high-impact, gender-segregated disciplines such as boxing. These debates often prioritize presumed physiological differences over principles of equity, human rights, and inclusion. This paper critically examines current eligibility policies that rely on binary sex categories and testosterone thresholds. It argues that such frameworks reflect a depoliticized and biologically deterministic view of fairness, one that marginalizes gender-diverse athletes and conflicts with the feminist values underpinning women’s sport. Through a structured review of peer-reviewed scientific literature and international sport policy documents, we examined key performance indicators including muscle mass, bone mineral density, VO 2 max, heart rate recovery, and technical skill. We found that no single physiological trait reliably predicts competitive advantage. Instead, athletic performance emerges from a dynamic interplay of physical, technical, and sociocultural factors, independent of sex or gender identity. The article proposes a multidimensional, performance-based classification model for elite boxing that moves beyond binary divisions. This model integrates objective physiological metrics with technical skill assessment and adaptive pathways for athletes in gender-affirming processes. It includes three categories: open performance, technical skill, and adaptive combat. The proposed framework is designed to better align safety, fairness, and inclusion in elite boxing. We conclude that sport policy must be grounded not only in scientific evidence but also in commitments to gender justice and human rights.
This qualitative study examines the psychosocial impacts of musculoskeletal injury among female rugby players, an underrepresented group in research. Seventeen nonelite female rugby players aged 21–37 were interviewed, and their experiences were interpreted using the socioecological model. Reflexive thematic analysis identified 10 subthemes across four levels: individual, interpersonal, organizational, and sociocultural. Findings show that musculoskeletal injury disrupts athletic identity, mental health, and daily functioning, often intensified by sex- (and gender) specific challenges such as caregiving responsibilities, biological differences and systemic inequities. Participants described both psychological distress and personal growth, with support from teammates, coaches, and family central to recovery. Yet, the absence of integrated mental health care and female-responsive policy within rugby organizations worsened negative outcomes. The study calls for holistic, multidisciplinary rehabilitation approaches and policy reform to better meet nonelite female rugby players’ needs, offering new insights to sport psychology literature.
Junior-state female rugby league athletes display significantly less strength and power compared with their senior counterparts, making in-season physical capacity development imperative, given the rolling competition schedule for these athletes. Twelve junior-state female rugby league athletes (age: 17.5 ± 0.5 years, height: 1.66 ± 0.05 m, mass: 72.6 ± 13.0 kg) completed countermovement jump, isometric midthigh pull, 40-m sprint, 505 change of direction, 300-m shuttle, and 30:15 intermittent fitness test at the beginning of preseason (T1), end of preseason (T2), and end of in-season (T3). External training loads for field-based (GPS metrics) and resistance-based (volume load [VL]) training sessions were also recorded. Multiple linear mixed models were performed to determine whether significant changes occurred across the season, with linear regressions calculated between any change with the relevant external load measure to determine the interactions. Isometric midthigh pull relative peak force, 0–10-m sprint time, and 505 time significantly improved from T1 to T2. While in T2 to T3, these speed assessments demonstrated significant decrements in performance. Conversely, countermovement jump height and 300-m shuttle time was maintained from T1 to T2 and significantly improved from T2 to T3. Increases in countermovement jump height was associated with a higher VL of lower body maximal and dynamic efforts, while increases in isometric midthigh pull relative peak force were associated with higher lower body repeated and plyometric effort VLs. Additionally, faster 505 times were significantly associated with a greater lower body plyometric effort VL. No GPS metric was associated with any change in running-based metrics. This data may assist practitioners in planning training across a junior-state female rugby league season.
Objective : This study aimed to examine whether a 5-min school-based balance training (BT) program could improve self-reported attentional focusing and shifting, objective attention performance, and balance performance in female adolescents. Methods : A randomized pilot trial was conducted among 68 female students assigned to either a BT or control group. The BT group performed additional 5-min balance sessions three times per week for 8 weeks. Primary outcomes were self-reported Attentional Control Scale scores for attentional focusing and attentional shifting and the objective Attention Test for Adolescents, while secondary outcomes included timed static and dynamic balance tests. Feasibility indicators included retention, compliance, perceived exertion, and adverse events. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance with baseline values as covariates. Results : Retention was 100% in the BT group and 97.14% in the control group, and average compliance in the BT group was 95.45%. The mean Borg rating of perceived exertion during BT ranged from 12.6 to 13.0, corresponding to a “somewhat hard” intensity. The BT group showed significant improvements in self-reported attentional focusing ( p = .037) and static balance ( p = .003) compared with controls, indicating medium effect sizes. No significant between-group differences were found in objective attention performance or dynamic balance. Conclusion : A brief 5-min BT improved self-reported attentional focusing and static balance in female adolescents, providing preliminary evidence for the feasibility of incorporating balance exercises into school-based physical education. Attention-related findings should nevertheless be interpreted cautiously because improvements were not consistent across attention measures.
Context : Women enrolled in higher education may experience different perceptions of physical activity. Objectives : Examine the relationship between race and/or socioeconomic status and perceptions of physical activity among women enrolled in higher education. Design : Cross-sectional study. Methods : Female university students completed a survey including demographics and the Exercise Benefits/Barriers Scale (EBBS). Two-way analyses of variance assessed the interaction of race and Area Deprivation Index (ADI) national percentile or state decile with EBBS benefit/ barrier scores. Results : There were no significant differences in EBBS benefits: F (5, 338) = 1.42, p = .22 and barriers: F (5, 338) = 1.15, p = .34, between races or ADI national percentile groups benefits: F (4, 311) = 0.27, p = .90 and barriers: F (4, 311) = 1.23, p = .30. There was no significant interaction between race/ethnicity and national percentile ADI for EBBS benefits, F (4, 315) = 1.37, p = .25, partial η 2 = .018, or EBBS barriers, F (4, 315) = 0.49, p = 0.75, partial η 2 = .006. There were no significant interactions between race/ethnicity and state decile ADI for EBBS benefits, F (9, 315) = 1.23, p = .35, partial η 2 = .03. There was a significant interaction between race/ethnicity and deprivation via state deciles with the EBBS barriers scale: F (9, 315) = 2.19, p = .02, partial η 2 = .063. Conclusion : Race and socioeconomic status influence perceived barriers at the state level, highlighting health disparities. Promoting equity and inclusion can improve health outcomes for women enrolled in higher education.
Background : Hormonal contraceptives (HCs) are widely used by women (defined in this manuscript as adult cis-gendered females) in both athletic and general populations. While ovarian hormones influence physiological pathways relevant to endurance adaptation, the extent to which HC use modifies responses to aerobic exercise training (AET) remains unclear. Objective : To systematically review the literature on the effects of HC use on physiological and performance adaptations to structured AET interventions in healthy women. Methods : Four databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Embase) were searched using predefined terms. Eligible studies directly compared HC users with naturally menstruating women in parallel-group designs involving ≥2 weeks of AET and reporting endurance-related outcomes. Study quality was assessed using a modified Tool for the Assessment of Study Quality and Reporting in Exercise (TESTEX). Results : From 5,513 records, only three articles from two independent data sets ( n = 77 participants; 47 HC) met the inclusion criteria. The oral contraceptive pill and contraceptive injection were the only forms of HC examined. Both interventions improved aerobic performance in HC users and naturally menstruating women, with functional outcomes (e.g., VO 2 max, time-trial performance, peak power output) generally comparable between groups. However, one study reported blunted central cardiovascular adaptations (VO 2 peak, peak cardiac output) but greater peripheral muscle oxygenation responses in oral contraceptive users. Methodological limitations included small sample sizes, inappropriate statistical approaches, and limited detail on HC formulation and duration of use. Conclusions : Only two small-scale studies have examined HC effects on AET adaptations, precluding evidence-based recommendations for athletes or practitioners. Well-powered trials are urgently needed to clarify whether HC type, composition, and duration of use influence endurance adaptations to AET.
Physical activity (PA) is recognized as a beneficial intervention for women survivors of violence; their overall level of PA remains lower than that of the general population. Several studies have examined the challenges related to engaging in PA among women survivors of violence, but most research on factors influencing PA of women survivors of violence have not incorporated theoretical models of behavior change. This study aimed to explore the barriers and facilitators to PA among women survivors of violence by using the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change. Interviews were conducted with 19 women across the different stages of the model, allowing for the identification of psychological, physical, and socioenvironmental themes. Initial barriers included psychological blocks and insufficient support, and progress toward the maintenance stage was associated with improved self-confidence, body image, and the perception of exercise as a form of therapy. Safe environments and positive emotional experiences were found to be essential for sustaining PA. These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms of engagement and disengagement in PA among women survivors of violence. Finally, they support the development of interventions tailored to each stage of behavior change in order to promote long-term PA among women survivors of violence.
Physical activity is crucially important to health and well-being for all individuals including new mothers. However, postpartum women often fall short of recommended exercise benchmarks due to a variety of barriers and constraints. Drawing on longitudinal data from 48 postpartum women across 162 semistructured, in-depth interviews during the first year after giving birth, this research explores postpartum physical activity through the lens of social role theory and the influence of gender stereotypes. Findings reveal physical activity opportunity and participation as highly gendered during this period. Specifically, new mothers frequently encounter a double standard and must actively negotiate and advocate for their ability to take time to exercise, often engaging in some form of compensatory activity to mitigate childcare challenges. Moreover, fathers were often positioned as unable to manage domestic and childcare responsibilities, thus promoting maternal attachment and further limiting women’s opportunity to engage in unencumbered leisure. Ultimately, data illustrates postpartum physical activity practices as shaped by deeply entrenched gendered roles and stereotypes.
Pregnancy produces profound cardiorespiratory adaptations, yet changes in operating lung volumes and presence of expiratory flow limitation (EFL) during exercise remain unknown. EFL has been reported in several other subgroups but has never been studied in pregnant individuals. We assessed operating lung volumes (end expiratory lung volume and end inspiratory lung volume) and EFL during treadmill and cycle exercise across an entire pregnancy and again at postpartum in a healthy, active 35-year-old female. Testing occurred bi-weekly on a treadmill and cycle ergometer from 8- to 38-week gestation, and once again ∼8-week postpartum. Pulmonary function and ventilatory measures were collected via metabolic cart and analyzed for end expiratory lung volume and end inspiratory lung volume. Operating lung volumes changed over time, with end expiratory lung volume decreasing—most notably when comparing cycle with treadmill and pregnancy to postpartum. EFL occurred throughout pregnancy in both exercise modes, appearing at lower workloads as gestation progressed on the treadmill and peaking during the second trimester on the cycle ergometer. These findings provide the first longitudinal evidence that pregnancy predisposes active women to EFL, with potential implications for exercise tolerance.
This article investigates the sharp contrast between the growing social acceptance of transgender identities in Western societies and the persistent resistance to transgender women’s inclusion in women’s sport. Moving beyond explanations rooted in transphobia or political conservatism, the analysis frames this conflict as a structural collision between two competing moral economies: the liberal logic of identity-based recognition and the sporting logic of category-based fairness. Sport is analyzed here as a distinct sociocultural institution that relies on strict biological segregation to produce narratives of meritocracy and meaningful competition. The article argues that, although broader society increasingly prioritizes self-definition, the institution of sport remains anchored in material classification as a prerequisite for the just distribution of status and rewards. Consequently, sport functions as a cultural “red line” where the universal values of social inclusion clash with the particular exclusionary mechanisms required to maintain competitive equity in a zero-sum environment.
