Newly hired secondary career and technical education (CTE) instructors are often surprised by the rate at which students with disabilities enroll in their classes. While many educators see CTE as a logical placement for students who are otherwise academically unsuccessful, the CTE teacher is too often unprepared for serving this population. Alternative routes of CTE teacher licensure often leave these teachers feeling unsure and ineffective. This article discusses concerns about this issue and includes an easy, four-step model CTE teachers serving students with disabilities can use to be more effective overall: 1) Orient staff who refer students to CTE programs and assist them in placement decisions; 2) Obtain assistance in implementing Individual Education Plan (IEP) accommodations; 3) Assess the appropriateness of the accommodations, record and make recommendations to the IEP team; and 4) Act as an advocate for the student in counseling and IEP development procedures.
study examined the post- secondary outcomes of students with and without disabilities in the four major outcomes areas of post-secondary education, em- ployment, independent living, and recreation and leisure. The target population included stu- dents graduating from one mid- sized school district from a south- ern state. A stratified random sample of 228 students with and without disabilities was selected. Data were collected prior to graduation and six-months fol- lowing graduation. Differences between groups were analyzed using loglinear analyses based upon educational setting, disabil- ity category, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. The findings indicated that differ- ences among groups did exist for post-secondary outcomes. Rec- ommendations for collecting dis- trict-level follow-up information on school leavers with and with- out disabilities are discussed. Do all students receive a public education that prepares them to be productive, contributing members of their communities? Regardless of the presence or absence of a disability, gradu- ating from high school and transitioning to an adult lifestyle poses challenges. High schools across the United States struggle with ensuring that all students are prepared for this transition. However, for stu- dents with disabilities, this tran- sition can be even more difficult. The 2004 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 108-446) require states to collect post- school outcome data on high school leavers with disabilities. Local school districts will be key to collecting this information. This study identifies differences in post-school outcomes for high school graduates with and with- out disabilities as reflected in one large school district and dis- cusses issues and recommenda- tions for collecting local school district data.
The purpose of this study was to identify key elements that contribute to successful transition outcomes for students with disabilities. Given the current emphasis on student choice and student directed transition planning, it is critical to summarize the perspectives of young adults with disabilities and other key personnel directly involved in providing transition services. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with 133 individuals, including young adults with disabilities, high school teachers and other school staff, parents, VR counselors, and employers. Four primary recommendations were identified for students with disabilities who are preparing for the transition from school to work: (a) increase self knowledge and self awareness, (b) display motivation and persistence, (c) participate in career exploration and multiple work experiences during high school, and (d) utilize transition services and post school supports. Recommendations for special education teachers or other school staff included: (a) listen carefully to students’ interests, hopes, and dreams, (b) provide extensive opportunities for career exploration and community based experiences, (c) promote student self direction and independent decision making, and (d) connect students with appropriate services and supports available through school or community agencies. Introduction Improving transition services and outcomes for youth with dis abilities has been a central com ponent of special education practice and policy for the last fifteen years. The reauthoriza tion of the Individuals with Dis abilities Education Improve ment Act (IDEIA, 2004) confirms that the fundamental purpose of a free appropriate public educa tion is to prepare youth with dis abilities for “further education, employment and independent living” [IDEA 2004 Sec 601 (d) (1) (A)]. In order to facilitate this movement from school to post school activities, transition ser vices are required to be identi fied in each student’s IEP be ginning at age 16, or earlier if needed. These transition ser vices must be based on indi vidual needs and take into ac count strengths, preferences, and interests. In addition, a va riety of instructional services and community experiences should be provided to prepare youth for post school employ ment or education settings. Although transition services and supports are mandated com ponents of special education service delivery, many youth with disabilities still face mul tiple barriers preparing for the transition from high school to postsecondary education, em ployment, and other aspects of community living (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). A recent report from the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability (NCWD) emphasized that, “Youth with disabilities, indeed all vulnerable youth, may need extra supports throughout their transition period to make in formed choices and become selfsufficient adults” (NCWD, 2006, p. 1). Given these needs, it is crucial for educators and other professionals to better under stand the individual and program level components that may support effective transition outcomes. Numerous research studies have been conducted to identify specific skills, services, and supports that may facilitate the transition from school to adult roles (e.g., Benz, Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Johnson, Stodden, Emmanuel, Luecking, & Mack, 2002; National Alliance for Sec ondary Education and Transi tion [NASET], 2005; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell, 1997). These best practice strategies can be summarized into two broad cat egories that are closely aligned with the IDEIA transition re quirements. Research based transition services include: (a) strategies to promote self deter mination and student choice, and (b) school and community based services designed to pre pare youth for post school em ployment or education options. Promoting Self Determination and Student Choice A central component of effective transition practice is the em phasis on student involvement and student choice. Self knowl edge and self awareness are of ten the first steps in the process of teaching students to identify interests and preferences. Webster (2004) found that suc cessful college students with disabilities had opportunities to develop self awareness and self knowledge, as well as disability knowledge. Other studies have confirmed the importance of self 5 The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education awareness, disability aware ness, and clear self concept in preparing young adults with dis abilities for high school gradu ation and the transition to adult roles (Doren, Lindstrom, Zane, & Johnson, in press; Gerber, Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992; WhitneyThomas & Moloney, 2001). Self determination, which is broadly defined as the ability to make choices and decisions based on one’s own needs and preferences, has also been linked to improved post school outcomes (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997). Self determi nation includes a number of specific skills including: self advocacy, choice making, deci sion making, problem solving, and goal setting (Field, Hoffman, & Speiza, 1998). Higher levels of self determination skills can contribute to increased opportu nities for employment, post sec ondary education, and indepen dent living arrangements, as well as community integration (Cooney, 2002; Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 2000). In a study of students with learning disabilities, Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) found that par ticipants who received self de termination training were em ployed at a higher rate and had higher hourly wages than peers who did not receive this training. Student involvement in goal setting is another impor tant component of effective transition practice. Students with disabilities are more likely to meet transition goals when they play an active role in the creation of those goals (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000), and are often more successful after graduation when they have transition services avail able to meet self-identified tran sition goals (Benz, Lindstrom, & Yovanoff, 2000; Goldberg, Higgins, Raskind, & Herman, 2003). In addition, youth with learning disabilities who: (a) are proactive/goal oriented, (b) have the ability to self advocate, (c) demonstrate an awareness of their disability, and (d) display pro-social coping skills, are more likely to achieve positive post school employment out comes (Doren et al., in press). Transition Services and Supports There is also a substantial body of literature describing specific school and community based services that contribute to suc cessful transition outcomes. Career development is one area often identified as key to the transition process (Morningstar, 1997; NASET, 2005; NCWD, 2006). Career preparatory expe riences, such as career aware ness, career exploration, and career assessments can help youth explore options, while at the same time identifying their interests, abilities, and poten tial need for accommodations. Students who participate in ca reer exploration activities are also more likely to recognize and identify a variety of career options (NASET, 2005; Lindstrom, Benz, & Doren, 2004; Ochs & Roessler, 2001). Youth with disabilities who receive explicit vocational, life, and social skills training also are better prepared for the tran sition to adult roles in the com munity (Johnson et al., 2002). An important extension of voca tional and career skills training is community based work expe rience. Work experiences offer hands on learning and struc tured opportunities to build work skills and habits. Participation in community based work expe rience activities in high school is also associated with improved graduation and employment outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell, 1997). Transition is also a collabo rative process that involves con nections to a number of public and private organizations, agen cies, and programs (NASET, 2005). These may include Voca tional Rehabilitation (VR), So cial Security Administration, Centers for Independent Living, and post secondary education and training programs (Mellard & Lancaster, 2003). Transition personnel should insure that these types of post school ser vices are made available to stu dents, and that these supple mental services are effectively integrated into the transition plan (Johnson et al., 2002; Skin ner & Lindstrom, 2003). Effective transition prac tices have been well docu mented in the special education literature. A number of longitu dinal studies have also been conducted to document post school status and transition ser vices received (e.g., Benz et al., 2000; Wagner et al., 2005). How ever, very few studies have col lected in-depth qualitative data from multiple key informants to shed light on critical needs for transition services. Given the current emphasis on student choice and student directed planning, we felt it was vital to solicit input from young adults with disabilities who have re cently completed the transition process. We were also inter ested in carefully examining and documenting the perspec tives of other key informants who have provided career plan ning and other transition ser vices. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to identify and sum marize key elements that contrib ute to successful transition out comes from the perspectives of: (a) young adults with disabilities, (b) school staff, (c) parents, (d) VR coun selors, and (e) employers.
This chapter focuses on indica tors of postsecondary participa tion, looking at the characteris tics of students who enroll in postsecondary education, stu dents who receive financial aid, and students who receive differ ent levels of postsecondary de grees. Between 1976 and 2004, minority enrollments increased as a percentage of undergradu ate enrollments, from 17 to 32 percent. Since 1976, the per centage of female undergradu ate enrollments has surpassed that of male undergraduate en rollments. In 2004, the enroll ment gender gap was largest for Black undergraduates (indicator 23.1). Trends in graduate enroll ments were similar to those for undergraduate enrollments, with the percentage of enrolled graduate students who were minorities increasing 14 per centage points from 1976 to 2004. As with undergraduate enrollments, female graduate enrollments surpassed male graduate enrollments during this period (indicator 23.2). Look ing at the participation rates of 18to 24-year-olds in colleges and universities, participation rates of Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics increased between 1980 and 2004 and Black, Hispanic, and White females had higher enroll ment rates than their male coun terparts in 2004 (indicator 23.3). In the 2003–04 school year, a larger percentage of Black stu dents received financial aid than did White, Hispanic, and Asian/ Pacific Islander students, while a lower percentage of Asians/ Pacific Islanders received aid than did any other race/ ethnicity (indicator 24). Black students also received larger average amounts of aid than White and Hispanic students. White, Black, and Hispanic stu dents experienced an increase in the average amount of aid awarded to them between 1999– 2000 and 2003–04. In 2004, more postsecondary degrees were awarded to Blacks than Hispanics, despite the fact that Hispanics made up a larger percentage of the total popula tion. Twice as many associate’s, bachelor’s, and master’s degrees were awarded to Black females as to Black males (indicator 25.1). Among those who received bachelor’s degrees in 2004, busi ness was the most popular field of study. Blacks had the high est proportion of bachelor’s de grees conferred in business of any race/ethnicity (indicator 25.2). More master’s and doc toral degrees were conferred in education than any other sub ject. Asians/Pacific Islanders received a higher proportion of master’s and doctoral degrees in engineering than any other race/ethnicity (indicator 25.2).
Adolescent pregnancy has oc curred throughout America’s his tory. Only in recent years has it been deemed an urgent crisis, as more young adolescent mothers give birth outside of marriage. Atrisk circumstances associated with adolescent pregnancy in clude medical and health compli cations, less schooling and higher dropout rates, lower career aspi rations, and a life encircled by poverty. While legislation for ca reer and technical education has focused attention on special needs populations, the definition has been broadened to include single parents. This article en compasses a brief history of ado lescent pregnancy in America, factors influencing adolescent pregnancy, and the conse quences associated with adoles cent pregnancy. The conclusion includes implications for educa tors, researchers, and practitioners. Introduction While slightly decreasing in rates in recent years, adolescent pregnancy continues to be prevalent in the United States, with nearly one million teenage females becoming pregnant each year (Meade & Ickovics, 2005; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Sarri & Phillips, 2004). The country’s adolescent pregnancy rate re mains the highest among west ern industrialized nations, with 4 of every 10 pregnancies occur ring in women younger than age 20 (Dangal, 2006; Farber, 2003; SmithBattle, 2003; Spear, 2004). Despite a 21% decline in the rate of pregnancy among older ado lescents between ages 15 and 19, nearly 12,000 adolescent fe males under age 15 become pregnant each year (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Preg nancy, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Sexuality In formation & Education Council of the United States [SIECUS], 2002). Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing are national prob lems that affect the community and society at large (Spear, 2004). Adolescent mothers be come economically dependent due to their decreased educa tional attainment, the decision to keep and raise their children, subsequent high fertility rates, and greater occurrences of single-parent families (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Farber, 2003). Not only is adolescent pregnancy economically costly, it poses various social consequences for teen mothers. Pregnancy is one of the reasons commonly cited by female secondary students for dropping out of high school (Brindis & Philliber, 2003). Rothenberg and Weissman (2002) found that 7 out of 10 fe males who became adolescent mothers did not graduate from high school. Less than one-third of adolescent females giving birth before age 18 ever complete high school, and the younger the pregnant adolescents are, the less likely they are to complete high school (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Koshar, 2001). Nationally, about 25% of adolescent moth ers have a second baby within one year of their first baby, leav ing the prospect of high school graduation improbable. How ever, if a parenting female can delay a second pregnancy, she becomes less at risk for dropping out of school and her chance of finishing high school increases (Kreinin, 1998). Research reveals many ado lescent females become preg nant intentionally because they see no other life goals within their reach (Winter, 1997). Plagued by poor school perfor mance and low self-esteem, they have no realistic expectations about education or occupations; thus, pregnancy is viewed as an alternative path to economic in dependence and adult status (Brown & Barbosa, 2001; Farber, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Turner, 2004). Usually adolescents who become teen mothers are already expe riencing academic difficulties in school, have low educational expectations, and are not confi dent they will graduate from high school, or are attempting to escape abusive home situa tions (Coles, 2005; Koshar, 2001). Pursuing higher educa tion or a career is not reason ably within their reach, and they may experience feelings of hope lessness or helplessness regard ing their future (Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). Coupled with a lack of positive role models and impoverished living situations, 5 The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education adolescent females decide to be come pregnant or they “drift” into pregnancy, as this decision appears to be their best option (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Winter, 1997). It is equally im portant to recognize that adoles cent pregnancy can be a posi tive life choice for females from certain ethnic or social groups (Tripp & Viner, 2005). Adolescent Pregnancy in Early America While many Americans have become increasingly concerned with the problem of teenage pregnancy over the past three decades, the truth is that teen age pregnancy has been a soci etal concern for more than three centuries (Luker, 1996). In pre vious centuries, adolescent pregnancy and the problems surrounding it were not specific to any age group, but instead were treated as part of broader social issues. Only since the 1970s has the issue of unwed motherhood become associated with teenagers (Luker, 1996). Subsequently, teenage preg nancy has gripped the attention of educators, policymakers, and the public, hence, being deemed an urgent crisis not only for the young mother and her child, but for society as well (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Manlove, 1998; Spear, 2004). In the Puritan communities of early North America, it was not unusual for an adolescent female to be a wife and mother because she was considered to be mature. Throughout the co lonial period, the incidence of young motherhood and of outof-wedlock births posed an eco nomic burden on communities. In both the Puritan and colonial times, young mothers were pun ished, hastily married off, and considered immoral by the church (Farber, 2003; Luker, 1996). The nineteenth century witnessed a decline in premari tal pregnancies, which was par tially attributed to greater church participation and more emphasis on self-control and self-discipline (Farber, 2003). Even into the mid-twentieth century, one-fourth of all Ameri can women were mothers before age 20. However, almost all ado lescent mothers were married before the arrival of their babies, or they succumbed to the pres sure to drop out of school to con ceal the pregnancy (Hofferth, Reid, & Mott, 2001; Hymowitz, 1997; Luker, 1996). If adolescent pregnancy and childbearing have been so com mon throughout American his tory, why have these issues re ceived such mounting attention and concern in recent years? Adolescent pregnancy and early marriage among teenagers were more accepted in the 1950s be cause the young girl usually married the baby’s father to le gitimize the birth (SmithBattle, 2003; Zero Population Growth, 1997). As long as the end result of a premarital adolescent preg nancy was marriage, the issue remained virtually invisible to soci ety (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Hymowitz, 1997). In fact, it was not until the radical social changes of the 1960s that ado lescent pregnancy became a more prominent and socially dis turbing trend (Cherry, Dillon, & Rugh, 2001). In the 1960s, ado lescents began having sexual intercourse at an earlier age and rejected hasty marriages to le gitimize a birth, opting instead to remain in school (Furstenberg Jr., 1991). The country saw a 50% increase in the birth rate among unwed teenagers from 1960 to 1975, and the number of births to unmarried teenagers between ages 15 to 19 quadrupled from 1960 to 1992 (Furstenberg Jr.; Hogan, Sun, & Cornwell, 2000). Today, while premarital sex is not condoned, nearly 47% of secondary students have re ported being sexually active be fore marriage (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2004; Santelli et al., 2004; Zero Population Growth, 1997). De spite high rates of adolescent pregnancy, the majority of American adults still believe teens should not be sexually active, non-marital childbearing is unacceptable, and unwed adolescent mothers are viewed in a negative manner (Hofferth et al., 2001; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Zero Population Growth, 1997). This position is substan tiated by a recent study of ado lescent females who reported having negative views toward teen motherhood (Turner, 2004). Factors Influencing Adolescent Pregnancy For years researchers have ex amined risk factors related to adolescent pregnancy. Charac teristics such as family struc ture, age at first intercourse, goals, and child sexual abuse have been associated with ado lescent pregnancy (Farber, 2003; McCullough & Scherman, 1991; Stewart, 2003; Xie, Cairns, & Cairns, 2001).
purpose of this qualitative study was to demonstrate and evaluate the incorporation of teambuilding training into a graduate course on transition. A total of 33 students in two differ- ent sections of the course partici- pated in six exercises focusing on group development and teambuilding and a group simu- lation. Students provided input about their perceptions of the teambuilding exercises and their own teambuilding skills in the form of journals and question- naires. The group simulation was videotaped to provide data regard- ing the student's acquired skills in a structured group setting. The results demonstrated that a ma- jority of students expressed posi- tive opinions about the teambuilding content and that the knowledge and skills taught were applicable in transition team en- vironments. Introduction students with disabilities, the transition from school to adult life is critical for success- ful community integration. Ap- propriate educational planning, instruction, and support ser- vices during school and the de- velopment of relationships with community and adult services are all necessary components in successful transition. To achieve these outcomes, tran- sition teams rely on a compre- hensive and longitudinal plan- ning process involving profes- sionals in the fields of special education, vocational educa- tion, vocational rehabilitation, and related disciplines (Baer, 2005). In principle, the student and his or her parents also play a critical role in developing and implementing the transition plan. In accordance with IDEIA (2004), all of these individuals engage in the transition process as equal partners with an em- phasis on team approaches. The make-up of the team is
A non-experimental design wasused to investigate the relation-ship of the Test of Adult BasicEducation (TABE) scores to em-ployment status. Groups were com-prised of individuals with disabili-ties who were either employed ornot employed immediately follow-ing their taking of the TABE andbeing released from a testing andemployment services center insoutheast Alabama. Data for 71individuals were analyzed to cre-ate a model to predict employmentstatus of individuals with physi-cal disabilities based on gender,race, age, and scores on the TABE.Logit and probit analyses wereconducted and the Akaike Infor-mation Criterion was used to se-lect the best model. Results re-vealed a significant interactiveeffect of gender and spelling andgender on the response, employ-ment. Non-Caucasians were hiredmore often than Caucasians. Introduction The Americans with DisabilitiesAct (ADA) 1990 mandates thatindividuals with disabilitiesshall not be subject to discrimi-nation based on their disabili-ties. According to the ADA, in-dividuals with disabilities arethose who have a physical ormental impairment that sub-stantially limits one or moremajor life activities such aswalking, seeing, hearing, learn-ing, or working. The intent ofthe law is to assure that indi-viduals with disabilities haveequal access in areas such asemployment, housing, transpor-tation, and public accommoda-tions (Americans with Disabili-ties Act, 1990). Title I requiresemployers with 15 or more em-ployees to provide qualified in-dividuals with disabilities anequal opportunity to benefit fromthe full range of employment-related opportunities availableto others. In addition, Section503 of the Rehabilitation Act of1973 requires employers withfederal contracts or subcon-tracts that exceed $10,000 totake affirmative steps to hire,retain, and promote qualifiedindividuals with disabilities.The regulations implementingSection 503 require that affir-mative steps should be taken torefrain from discriminationagainst qualified individualswith disabilities in employmentand that services be provided topromote independent living inthe community (Huefner, 2000).In 1990, Congress found thatmore than 43 million Ameri-cans have one or more physicalor mental disabilities.On a national level, threeout of ten individuals from ages18 to 64 with disabilities areemployed either full or part timecompared to eight out of tenadults without disabilities, andpeople with slight disabilitiesare eight times more likely tobe employed than people withsevere disabilities (National Or-ganization on Disability, 2001).The unemployment rate forpeople with disabilities living inAlabama is over 70%, and 72%of working age people with dis-abilities say they would like towork. This is consistent withnational figures. Consequently,people with disabilities oftenlive at or below poverty level:34% live in household incomeswith less than $15,000 annualincome, compared to 12% ofthose without disabilities (Ala-bamians with Disabilities Act,2003). The Alabama DisabilitiesAction Coalition reported thatthere are more than 945,000people with disabilities who livein Alabama. Approximately one-half of Alabamians 65 years ofage and older reported havingsome type of disability in 2000.These disabilities includedblindness, deafness, severe vi-sion or hearing impairment;difficulty performing physicalactivities, such as walking, dif-ficulty learning, remembering,or concentrating, etc. For the 21to 64 year old population, 23.2%had some type of disability.Employer attitudes towardhiring individuals with disabili-ties tend to vary depending onindividual definitions of atti-tudes, specific types of disabili-ties, and perceived cause of thedisability (Bordieri, Drehmer,and Taricone, 1990). Regardlessof the type of disability, individu-als who were seen as personallyresponsible for their disabilityreceived lower hiring recom-mendations than those whosedisabilities were attributed tosome external factors. Resultsof a study by Bordieri, Drehmer,
Although increased attention in special education has been given to individual transition planning, little research has been done to assess student opinions and knowledge on this process. The majority of research has focused on “best practice” to ensure quality transition planning for students. This study surveyed 103 students receiving special education services at a large high school in Texas to assess student knowledge and perceptions on the current transition planning process. Students surveyed represent those with mild to moderate disabling conditions (intellectual disability, learning disability, emotional disturbance, autism, speech, and other health impairment) and were educated in a spectrum of general education and special education classrooms. Results are discussed in terms of how the students in special education have been educated on the transition process, how the special education staff used student goals and desires in writing transition plans, and overall student perceptions of the process. History of Transition Planning Education planning for individuals with disabilities has undergone radical changes since the creation of PL 94-142, the Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA) in 1975, which first mandated a free and appropriate public education for children with disabilities. This law was significantly updated in 1990 when PL 101-476, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was enacted. Some of the changes included the provision of medical services, specialized transportation, related services, and the mandate for transition services. Even more recently, the Amendments to IDEA, both in 1997 and 2004, require a transition plan by age 16. This individualized transition plan requires participation from the student and the establishment of linkages to adult service providers in order to facilitate the transition process and help assure against a gap in services upon exiting high school. Congress provided clear guidance to the delivery of transition services in the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004: The term ‘transition services’ means a coordinated set of activities for a child with a disabil ity that— (A) is designed to be a resultsoriented process, that is focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child with a disability to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities, including post-secondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation; (B) is based on the individual child’s needs, taking into account the child’s strengths, preferences, and interests . . . “ (Section 1401) More recently, with the passing of Indicator 14 of the State Performance Plan on Effective Transition, school districts are now being held accountable for the post-secondary success of students served through special education (Post-School Outcome Center, 2005). The transition plan is critical in outlining and preparing for this success. In general, past research has shown that students with disabilities achieve post-school outcomes at a much lower rate than do their non-disabled peers (Mithaug, Horiuchi, & Fanning, 1985; Sittlington, & Frank, 1990). This spans across the four main categories of post-secondary outcomes, which include employment, post-secondary education, independent living, and community integration (National Transition Network, 1997; Wagner et al., 1991). Another study found fewer than half of students with disabilities were employed full time two years following their high school graduation (Wagner, et al, 1991). In addition, Blackorby and Wagner (1996) found that African-American and Hispanic students with disabilities earned less in wages and had even more difficulty finding employment when compared to Anglo students with disabilities. Less favorable outcomes occurred in studies of post-secondary education and students with disabilities. Students with learning disabilities often make inappropriate career decisions because they do not realize how 14 Volume 29, Number 3, Spring 2007 their own personal interests and characteristics fit into the career decision profile (Jagger, Neukrug, & McAuliffe, 1992). The original National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) concluded that only 22.5% of students with disabilities access post-secondary education compared with 56% of the general population (Wagner et al., 1991). However, more recent research shows improvements in that 31% of students with disabilities access post-secondary education within two years of leaving high school (Newman, 2005). As part of transition-focused research in the past decade, different strategies were considered to determine how to maximize benefits to students with disabilities. These specific strategies are now critical in ensuring optimal results for transition planning. One of the most promising is the use of self-determination and maximizing student-centered planning. Student-Centered Planning through Self-Determination For best practice in transition planning, the focus must remain on the student, keeping the personal goals of the student in mind, as indicated in IDEA 2004. Including the student in all decision-making required in transition planning enables his or her plan to be more meaningful (Wehmeyer, 1998). In fact Thoma (1997) found that a student who implemented his or her own transition plan achieved a higher employment rate after high school and experienced a more independent living setting away from parental homes. Self-determination is defined as being the primary agent who makes decisions and causes things to happen in one’s life (Wehmeyer, 1997). In terms of self-determination, Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) concluded that adults who expressed higher self-determination achieved higher post-secondary outcomes than individuals with lower skills in self-determination. In recent years, self-advocacy and self-determination have been used to help foster students’ participation in studentcentered planning. Past research clearly shows that students who have been shown self-determination skills speak up more during transition planning meetings than students who have not been taught selfdetermination strategies (Wehmeyer, 1997). However, learning the aspects of self-determined behavior takes time. These skills must be taught gradually, starting at a young age. As the student matures, greater responsibility and expectations may be placed on the student (Morningstar, Kleinhammer-Tramill, & Lattin, 1999). For instance, the student can attend the first transition planning meeting and offer input regarding transition goals. However, students should be leading the meeting and guiding all decisions by his or her senior year in high school. Several curricula have been developed based on research to teach students with disabilities selfdetermination and self-advocacy skills. Examples of these models are Steps to Self-Determination (Hoffman & Field, 2005), Next S.T.E.P.S. (Halpern, Herr, & Doren, 2000), and Choicemaker (Martin et al, 1996). For student-centered planning to reach its full potential for developing student dreams and goals, students must learn to fully participate in transition planning process. Student involvement in education planning through Individualized Education Plans (IEP) is critical to develop decision-making and other self-determination skills (Martin, Huber Marshall, & DePry, 2001). Johnson et al. (2002) spoke to the importance of improving student attendance at meetings in order to facilitate participation. It is important to note that student participation can occur through different forms. Participation may range from active, which includes leading one’s own meeting, to limited, such as actively speaking during the meeting, to absent, which involves being present in the room but providing no information. One way to maximize active participation is to limit the number of participants in the meeting based on the student’s desires. Finally, use careful consideration in inviting members to a meeting who are not strong supports for the student (Whitney-Thomas, Shaw, Honey, & Butterworth, 1998). The field currently knows of the benefits to students to providing opportunities to increase self-determined behavior (Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998) and in allowing students’ active participation within their IEP meetings. In addition, research indicates that students are often unclear as to the purpose of educational planning meetings (Martin, Huber Marshall, & Sale, 2004). However, educators need to learn as much as possible in terms of what students know about transition planning so changes can be made within school programs. The purpose of this research is to determine what knowledge students have in terms of transition planning and how students perceive the role of school personnel in their transition planning.
The purpose of this article is to synthesize the current information in the area of person-centered planning. The article investigates issues in the areas of analyses of various approaches, similarities and differences of approaches, implementation of person-centered planning processes, and advantages and limitations of person-centered planning. The implementation of person-centered planning requires change and flexibility among state educational planners, local and regional school officials, teachers and ancillary personnel, community support agencies and their personnel, and parents from the traditional manner in conducting the planning process for people with disabilities. Person-Centered Planning: Practices, Promises, and Provisos Person-centered planning began almost 20 years ago as a systematic approach to identify new concepts through which to understand the experience of people with developmental disabilities and to work with them and their allies to better their experiences in life (O’Brien, O’Brien, & Mount, 1997). Person-centered planning represents a 180-degree turn away from the system-centered process, and has been called the “antithesis” of this more traditional method of planning (Holburn, Jacobson, & Vietze, 2000). “According to recent reports person-centered planning approaches are important new tools which challenge the way service providers interact with individuals with disabilities and their families, conduct assessments, develop individualized plans, and deliver and evaluate services for individuals with disabilities” (Everson & Zhang, 2000, p. 36). Person-Centered Planning is a way of listening to and learning from individuals what they would like to have or see in their lives, it assists people to think about what types of things they would like to have now as well as in the future, and it places the individual’s family and friends at the forefront of helping to make those plans come into existence (O’Brien, 2004). It is one of the newer and more innovative mediums to bring about positive changes in the lives of individuals especially those with disabilities. Many service delivery systems hold fast to the traditional system centered focus for various reasons. Although some progress has been made in the implementation of person-centered planning, most states still face the difficult task of trying to implement an individually-oriented, time-intensive planning process with funding structures that are limiting their flexibility, caseloads that are prohibitively high, and case management structures in which there are inherent conflicts of interest (Anderson & Factor, 1993). Currently, very little research investigating personcentered planning practices and outcomes has been published (Everson & Zhang, 2000; Reid, Everson, & Green, 1999). What has been written has been almost solely focused on the practices, benefits, and outcomes associated with personcentered planning but minimal research efforts have been directed towards exploring the characteristics, inhibitors, and supports that lead to successful outcomes due to person-centered planning (Everson & Zhang, 2000; Whitney-Thomas, Shaw, Honey, & Butterworth, 1998). To add to this body of knowledge, we provide an analysis of the literature in several broad domains: first, we provide an overview of the person-centered process, including analyses of various approaches and steps for implementation of person-centered planning, and an analysis of efficacy studies of person-centered planning. We also discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of person-centered planning and provide a perspective on current practices for future research.
This qualitative study investigated the barriers against and strategies for promoting the involvement of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) parents in schoolbased transition planning. Focus groups and interviews were conducted with 31 parents from Native American, African American and Hispanic communities, and 10 professionals who had involvement in transition planning. Coding of the transcripts using established ethnographic and content analysis techniques revealed seven main categories or types of barriers which appear to inhibit or prevent parental involvement in school-based transition planning: (a) power imbalance; (b) psychological or attitudinal; (c) logistic; (d) information; (e) communication; (f) SES and contextual factors; and (g) cultural influences. In the qualitative study, parents and professionals also identified a number of potential strategies for increasing or better supporting parental involvement in transition planning. These strategies included: (a) positive communication between parent and professionals; (b) preparing for transition at an earlier age; (c) information on school-based transition planning; (d) use of a parent advocate; (e) emotional support for parents; and (f) flexibility in meeting formats. The implications of these findings for educational and transition services are discussed.
