The increasing demand for English communication in the global mining industry requires higher education institutions to provide instructional materials that integrate disciplinary knowledge, language development, and professional competencies. However, English courses in mining-related programs remain largely generic and insufficiently aligned with students’ academic and workplace needs. This study aimed to develop and validate deep content and language integrated learning (deep-CLIL)-based English for mining materials for higher education. Employing a design and development research (DDR) approach, the study involved 106 undergraduate students from five Indonesian universities, 15 interview participants, and three expert validators. Data were collected through questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and expert validation checklists and were analyzed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The needs analysis identified strong demand for contextualized mining content, particularly mining operations, geological exploration, environmental management, and occupational safety. Speaking emerged as the highest-priority language skill. Students strongly supported project-based learning, authentic workplace tasks, collaborative learning, and critical-thinking activities. These findings informed the development of the deep-CLIL framework, which extends the conventional CLIL 4Cs (content, communication, cognition, and culture) by explicitly integrating deep learning principles to promote meaningful knowledge construction and workplace readiness. The resulting materials comprised 10 thematic units incorporating authentic mining scenarios, collaborative projects, reflective learning, and performance-based assessment. Expert validation demonstrated very high validity across all dimensions (overall M = 4.80), confirming the quality and feasibility of the developed materials. The study contributes a theoretically grounded and empirically validated framework that offers practical guidance for developing discipline-specific English materials in higher education.
With the increasing emphasis on quality assurance and continuous improvement in higher education, total quality management (TQM) is being widely applied to enhance teaching quality. However, research into the core practices, effects and implementation challenges of TQM remains fragmented. This study conducted a systematic literature review according to the PRISMA framework. A systematic search of Scopus and Web of Science identified 1 058 records, from which 14 eligible studies published between 2015 and 2025 were selected. The included studies were analysed using thematic and inductive analysis. The findings indicate that key TQM dimensions include leadership support, teaching process management, quality measurement and evaluation, continuous improvement, faculty development and stakeholder orientation. TQM generally contributes to improved teaching quality, faculty performance, organisational effectiveness and stakeholder satisfaction. However, implementation is constrained by insufficient leadership support, limited teacher participation, weak quality culture and inconsistent evaluation practices. Overall, TQM can enhance higher education teaching quality when it is systematically integrated with institutional leadership, teaching processes, faculty development and continuous improvement mechanisms. The findings provide practical implications for educators, university administrators and policymakers.
English is a foreign language taught in Indonesia. One of the biggest problems in teaching English as a foreign language is how to bridge students’ language proficiency and their indigenous cultural identity. The present study investigates the need for designing culturally responsive instructional materials for students of a Hindu higher education institution in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research uses an explanatory mixed methods design to implement the Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) model to assess the pedagogical and cultural needs for the development of genre-based English teaching materials. Using purposive sampling, this study included 120 students, 5 lecturers, 5 cultural practitioners, and 1 head of the study programme. The study data were collected through questionnaires, document analysis, and semi-structured interviews with lecturers, students, programme administrators, and cultural practitioners. The findings show a critical gap between curriculum policy and classroom practice, indicating the need for urgent genre-based scaffolding and technology based and contextualised content. Cultural analysis identifies that material artefacts (e.g., Batang Haring), social practices (rituals), and philosophical values (Tri Hita Karana) are crucial elements in enhancing the relevance of learning. These results provide a framework for mapping local wisdom into functional texts, ensuring English materials are both linguistically sound and culturally grounded. This study recommends developing technology-based English materials infused with local wisdom as a strategic solution for meaningful, contextualised language learning.
Developing students who embody the Pancasila Learner Profile remains a central objective of Indonesia's Merdeka Curriculum, yet many schools struggle to translate these expected values into classroom practice. Meanwhile, smartphones are integral to adolescents' daily lives, though their potential to support character education remains underused. This study examined whether integrating a Reflection and Innovation approach into Technology-Supported Project-Based Learning could improve students' character development more effectively than conventional instruction. A quasi-experimental nonequivalent control-group pretest-posttest design was conducted with 384 Grade Eleven students (192 experimental, 192 control). Character development was assessed using a 60-item Pancasila Learner Profile Questionnaire with strong content validity (CVI = .89) and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's ? = .93). After eight weeks, students exposed to the intervention outperformed the comparison group (M = 82.6 vs. 63.4; t(382) = 18.18, p < .001; Cohen's d = 1.86), with large effect sizes across all six dimensions (d = 1.37–1.53). The intervention also produced a substantially higher Normalised Gain (g = .65) than conventional learning (g = .27), while students reported very positive learning experiences (91.1% positive responses). These findings indicate that combining structured reflection, authentic project work, and technology-supported learning provides an effective pathway for strengthening multidimensional character development among secondary school students.
Active learning has become an essential instruction approach for preparing learners with the knowledge and skills required in the 21st century, and structured professional development can help pre-service teachers develop the competencies needed to implement such approaches effectively. The purpose of this study was to develop a model for enhancing active learning teaching skills among pre-service teachers. The study employed a research and development design consisting of three phases: model development, implementation, and evaluation. The implementation phase (Phase 2) was conducted over a 16-week semester during the pre-service teachers’ teaching practicum. The resulting model consisted of four major components: workshop training, lesson planning, coaching and feedback, and reflection and sharing activities. The findings revealed that the developed model demonstrated the highest levels of appropriateness (M = 4.90) and feasibility (M = 4.94). Furthermore, the pre-service teachers achieved lesson-planning and teaching-skill scores significantly higher than the established criterion of 80% (p < .05). The model was also evaluated positively across the instruction, institutional, and behavioral dimensions of Hammond’s framework. The study contributes to teacher education by providing an evidence-based model for developing active learning teaching competencies among pre-service teachers during their teaching practicum.
This study examines how observation-based learning supported university students’ spiritual awareness, sociological sensitivity, and inclusive attitudes in Islamic Religious Education (IRE). Using a qualitative case study design, the study analyzed a multi-level documentary corpus generated by 120 undergraduate students across three class sections in the History of Islam and Studies of Indonesian Society course at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. The corpus comprised 36 group observation reports, three classroom discussion documents, and 120 individual reflective writings produced following structured field encounters with diverse religious and social communities. Data were examined through qualitative document analysis and reflexive thematic analysis, with data-source triangulation across group-, class-, and individual-level documents and additional credibility checks used to assess convergent and divergent patterns. Findingsings indicate that observation-based learning supported movement from predominantly textual and categorical understandings toward interpretation of religion as a lived social reality. Spiritual awareness appeared as reflective-moral self-examination, recognition of prejudice, empathy, and responsibility; sociological sensitivity as historical, cultural, institutional, and socio-political contextualization; and inclusive attitudes as respectful listening, clarification before judgment, resistance to stereotyping, and dialogical engagement. The study contributes to IRE scholarship by conceptualizing observation-based learning as a reflective-contextual pedagogy in which direct encounter becomes educationally meaningful through moral reflection, contextual interpretation, and dialogue.
The ability to conduct SWOT analysis is an essential competency in marketing education. However, conventional teaching approaches may not always provide interactive and contextually relevant learning experiences. This study intends to develop and evaluate SI-M-SWOT. The interactive learning model integrates Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and game-based learning to enhance the teaching and learning of SWOT analysis in marketing education. This study employed a Research and Development (R&D) approach using the ADDIE framework, which comprises five stages: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The model was piloted with 133 undergraduate students across four universities in East Java, Indonesia. Data collected through observations, questionnaires, and pre- and post-tests were analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired-samples t-tests. The paired-samples t-test results revealed statistically significant improvements in SWOT analysis comprehension scores across all participating universities (t = ?3.93 to ?9.68; df = 26–44; p < 0.001), with effect sizes ranging from moderate to very large (Cohen’s d = 0.59–1.86; pooled d ? 1.06; N = 133). Mean scores increased by 15.80 to 28.74 points (24.7%–44.3%) across the participating universities. The findings also indicated positive improvements in students’ critical thinking skills and participation. The integration of SI-M-SWOT and PBL provided a more engaging and student-centered learning experience. In addition, students reported increased learning motivation and demonstrated improved analytical skills in addressing real-world marketing problems. Overall, the findings provide statistical evidence supporting the effectiveness of the SI-M-SWOT model for teaching SWOT analysis in marketing education. Therefore, the SI-M-SWOT model shows potential for implementation in higher education settings.
This systematic review synthesized evidence on the barriers, enabling conditions, and outcomes of flipped classroom implementation in elementary education. A Scopus search on 13 February 2026 identified 265 records from 2016–2025, with PRISMA 2020 screening retaining 27 eligible studies. The included studies underwent structured thematic synthesis following methodological quality appraisal using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Teacher-related barriers (n = 11) and technological constraints (n = 10) predominated, while student readiness, family support, and contextual adaptation shaped implementation. Structured design (n = 16) and age-appropriate materials (n = 15) predominated, supported by teacher development, active pedagogy, motivation, and ecosystem readiness. Academic achievement (n = 16) and motivation and engagement (n = 14) predominated, alongside retention, higher-order thinking, socio-emotional development, and physical outcomes. However, competitive features increased anxiety, while complex motor tasks produced weaker outcomes when demands exceeded learner readiness. Conceptually, this review advances a developmentally grounded, systemic explanation of elementary flipped classroom implementation. It positions instructional alignment as the mechanism connecting technology, teacher capacity, learner readiness, family support, and institutional conditions. Successful implementation therefore depends on coherent relationships among these components and their adaptation to younger learners. These findings provide schools with evidence-based criteria for equitable, developmentally appropriate, and responsible implementation.
The swift evolution of industrial technologies necessitates that vocational high schools enhance the preparedness of their graduates for Industry 4.0, while also gearing up for Industry 5.0. However, there is a little comprehensive evidence on how teaching methods, the application of the Merdeka Curriculum, and the development of Industry 4.0 competencies work together to facilitate this transition in Indonesia. This systematic literature review consolidates findings on teaching methodologies, the incorporation of Industry 4.0 skills, and the challenges facing implementing teaching methodologies in vocational high schools. In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, 30 peer-reviewed articles published from 2021 to 2026 were selected from Scopus and Google Scholar by applying specific inclusion criteria. Data was collected manually using a structured form and analyzed with thematic synthesis. The results indicate that project-based learning, Teaching Factory, and technology-enhanced learning are the predominant pedagogical strategies that aid in the execution of the Merdeka Curriculum. These strategies consistently enhance competencies relating to technical skills, digital literacy, critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and collaboration; communication remains the least-developed skill. The review also highlights significant challenges faced in applying these pedagogical approaches; these challenges relate to teacher proficiency, curriculum adaptability, industry partnerships, and disparities in digital infrastructure. Ultimately, to prepare vocational education for Industry 5.0, a comprehensive transformation is needed that incorporates innovative teaching practices, responsive curricula, institutional development, and sustainable collaborations with industry to bolster workforce readiness.
Mathematical thinking and reasoning competence is essential in contemporary mathematics education, yet empirical evidence explaining how pedagogical and cognitive factors jointly influence this competence remains limited. This study developed and validated a structural model to examine the relationships among five latent constructs, including: (1) reasoning-oriented task design and learning environment, (2) error-based pedagogical practices, (3) mathematical discourse and communication, (4) students’ cognitive disposition and self-regulation, and (5) mathematical thinking and reasoning competence. Data were collected from 246 upper secondary mathematics teachers in Vietnam. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to evaluate the measurement model and examine the proposed relationships. The results showed that error-based pedagogical practices, students’ cognitive disposition and self-regulation, and mathematical discourse and communication significantly predicted mathematical thinking and reasoning competence. In addition, reasoning-oriented task design and learning environment positively influenced mathematical discourse and communication, which in turn was significantly associated with students’ cognitive disposition and self-regulation. These findings highlight the complementary roles of pedagogical and cognitive factors in developing mathematical thinking and reasoning competence and suggest that the intentional use of students’ errors, together with the fostering of mathematical discourse, can support mathematics teaching in upper secondary education.
The pedagogical competence of pre-service early childhood teachers develops not only through university coursework but also through guided participation in authentic settings. Yet internship and mentorship experiences remain uneven because of persistent theory-practice disconnections, inconsistent mentoring, and insufficiently coherent practicum structures. This systematic literature review synthesised 37 peer-reviewed articles published from 2020 to 2025 and indexed in CNKI, Web of Science, and ERIC. Using a structured coding framework and thematic synthesis, the review examined study characteristics, theoretical orientations, processes of competence development, and the contextual conditions shaping those processes. Across the literature, pedagogical competence emerged as a multidimensional and situated capacity developed through classroom participation, mentoring, peer collaboration, and critical reflection. The effectiveness of these processes depended on institutional coordination, access to resources, mentor preparation and availability, academic support, manageable workloads, and a supportive school culture. Mentorship was especially important because it helped pre-service teachers interpret children's responses, connect theory with developmentally appropriate practice, and form a professional identity. The review therefore supports internship models that deliberately connect sustained classroom responsibility with prepared mentors, collaborative inquiry, and structured reflection. It also identifies design principles relevant to the further development and empirical evaluation of the Hengxing Internship Model. These findings offer a conceptual basis for teacher educators, institutions, and policymakers seeking context-responsive approaches to preparing reflective and adaptive early childhood teachers.
Evidence-to-claim coherence requires thesis conclusions and recommendations to remain traceable to research questions, analytical results, evidence, warrants, and methodological boundaries. Grounded in scholarship on argumentation, validity, feedback literacy, and rubric assessment, this study developed the Thesis Reasoning and Argument Coherence Evaluation Framework (TRACE) for undergraduate thesis writing. TRACE integrates an Evidence–Claim Traceability Matrix, a six-dimensional Claim Calibration and Coherence Rubric, a Taxonomy of Research Inference Errors, and a secondary Argument Coherence Index (ACI). Framework development combined conceptual synthesis, exploratory examination of 42 anonymized thesis chapter sets, expert-guided refinement, and rater calibration. A subsequent descriptive evaluation involved 120 third-year undergraduates in four intact thesis-writing sections at a public teacher-education institution in Central Luzon, Philippines. Two sections received TRACE-supported instruction; two received equal-duration conventional thesis-writing instruction without TRACE tools. Ten doctoral-level experts in research methodology, academic writing, educational assessment, instrument development, curriculum, measurement, or thesis supervision appraised high-level framework statements (S-CVI/Ave = .92). Three trained raters scored baseline drafts and final outputs; average-measure absolute-agreement coefficients were ICC (2,3) = .854 and .883, respectively. All sections had higher final means, but one comparison section showed a trajectory comparable to that of the TRACE sections. Very low internal consistency among final dimension scores (? = .09) argued against a homogeneous-scale interpretation of the ACI. TRACE is recommended for cautious formative and diagnostic use, with the dimension profile primary and the ACI provisional.
Despite the growing importance of in-service professional development training programs, limited research has been undertaken to unearth the specific competences that professional teachers develop within tourism and hospitality training programs. Anchored by the Experiential Learning Theory, this study addresses this gap in the literature by exploring the competences gained by teachers participating in a related in-service program at a local university in Botswana, and how these have influenced their teaching practice. The study employed a qualitative research methodology, through a focus group discussion and semi structured interviews on 13 in-service teachers graduating from program. As reported by all the participants, the in-service program largely contributed to five interrelated competence domains to varying levels: i.e. subject-matter competence, pedagogical competence, industry knowledge, professional competence, and entrepreneurship competence. Conversely, despite its commonality in similar programs, curriculum competence development was not reported, largely due to the tourism industry-aligned (and not teacher-focused) nature of the program. Overall, stronger collaborations between educational institutions and the tourism industry and wider integration of 21st Century skills in tourism and hospitality in-service education, were recommended.
Final project themes in visual arts education are often viewed as individual creative choices, while their association with institutional contexts remains underexamined. This study examines differences in the thematic orientation of visual arts students’ final projects across three institutions. A comparative quantitative content analysis was conducted on 156 final project documents from three anonymized institutions in West Java, Indonesia: a Science and Technology-oriented School (STS), an Arts and Culture-oriented Institution (ACI), and a Teacher Education-oriented Institution (TEI). Each document was classified into one dominant thematic category based on its title, conceptual description, and narrative. The data were analyzed using frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulation, the Chi-Square Test of Independence, Cramer’s V, and standardized residuals. Psychology was the most prevalent theme, followed by culture and environment. STS showed stronger representation of psychological, spiritual, gender, and science-related themes; ACI emphasized psychological, cultural, and medium-based themes; while TEI showed stronger representation of cultural, environmental, historical, political, and sports-related themes. A significant association was found between institutional context and thematic distribution, ?²(22) = 72.77, p < .001, with a moderate effect size (Cramer’s V = .483). The findings suggest that final project themes may be interpreted as empirical traces of the interaction between institutional contexts and students’ artistic orientations. However, they do not establish a causal effect of institutional pedagogy because individual interests, supervisory preferences, and social influences were not directly examined. The study contributes by positioning students’ creative outputs as empirical indicators for examining institutional patterns in higher visual arts education.
Generative artificial intelligence is increasingly used in higher-education research writing, yet institutions often lack operational procedures to protect authorship, ensure research alignment, verify, and disclose. This study developed and preliminarily evaluated the ARROW-AI Framework and Toolkit through a sequential multiphase developmental-validation design with embedded mixed-methods formative evaluation and a bounded pilot. Participants comprised 12 experts, 84 student-researchers, 18 advisers/instructors, and 32 pilot cases. Descriptive expert-domain ratings ranged from 3.38 to 3.58 for the framework and from 3.20 to 3.53 for the toolkit, while all 15 components met the prespecified I-CVI and CVR criteria. Student-researcher domain ratings ranged from 4.05 to 4.18, and adviser/instructor ratings ranged from 3.82 to 4.24; documentation and workload burden were moderate. Pilot completion averaged 88.91%; six initially high-risk requests were down-scoped, and four cases required substantive revision. Because the instruments covered conceptually distinct formative domains, ratings were interpreted descriptively by domain rather than as scores from unidimensional psychometric scales. Integrated evidence supported six revisions, including shorter records, completed examples, clearer risk decisions, and stronger adviser guidance. ARROW-AI should therefore be treated as a developmental process guide rather than evidence of effectiveness or misconduct prevention.
This study examined how artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping family education priorities across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Through a large-scale quantitative survey of approximately 2000 parents in eight MENA countries (Qatar, the UAE, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria), patterns of AI integration were mapped in home learning, and associated shifts in parental authority, pedagogical values, and educational equity were assessed. Using a composite AI Integration Index, adoption intensity, usage autonomy, and attitudinal changes toward core educational priorities were measured. The findings revealed a clear regional divide: high-integration Gulf states reported significant erosion of parental authority over knowledge and increased domestic conflict over homework quality, whereas moderate-integration North African countries experienced high strain due to insufficient institutional support. Parental digital literacy emerged as a critical mediator, buffering against conflict and mitigating concerns about authority. The study also identified a growing “critical thinking divide”, where unequal access to structured AI literacy entrenches socio-educational inequities. These results underscore the need for culturally responsive, family-centered policy interventions, including national AI literacy frameworks, enhanced school–parent guidance systems, and regional efforts to promote equitable critical engagement with AI. The research contributes a timely, evidence-based perspective on how AI is renegotiating educational values within MENA households, offering a foundation for policies that align technological advancement with cultural and intergenerational continuity.
This study investigates Year 6 pupils’ perceptions of and attitudes toward mathematics learning achievement through Wayground Paper Mode. The study addresses the problem of limited access to individual digital devices in primary classrooms, which restricts the implementation of technology-enhanced learning activities. A quantitative research design employing a survey method was used, involving 162 Year 6 pupils from a primary school in Kuala Lumpur. The research instrument was a questionnaire constructed based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), measuring perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and pupils’ attitudes toward Wayground Paper Mode. Descriptive statistical analysis indicated that pupils reported high levels of perception (M = 4.03, SD = 0.60) and attitude (M = 4.07, SD = 0.62), with most participants agreeing that the approach was easy to use, enjoyable, and supportive of mathematics learning. Inferential analysis using the Kruskal–Wallis H test revealed statistically significant differences in perceptions and attitudes across mathematics achievement levels. Specifically, high-achieving pupils demonstrated significantly more positive perceptions and attitudes compared to their moderate- and low-achieving peers. The findings suggest that Wayground Paper Mode can support positive learning experiences in primary mathematics classrooms. However, differences across achievement groups indicate the need for differentiated instructional support to ensure that pupils of varying academic abilities can benefit effectively from gamified learning activities. This study contributes to the understanding of how gamified, low-tech instructional approaches can support student engagement in mathematics education. Future research is recommended to explore long-term effects of such approaches on student motivation and learning outcomes.
Artificial intelligence is increasingly used in higher education, yet evidence concerning its relationship with academic performance remains fragmented across adoption studies, predictive models and evaluations of learning outcomes. This study maps and synthesises Scopus-indexed research published between 2020 and 2025. A bibliometric analysis of 84 records was conducted using VOSviewer and Microsoft Excel, while 29 eligible studies were examined through a PRISMA-guided systematic review and structured content analysis. The review analysed publication patterns, influential contributors, AI application types, educational purposes, research designs, outcome measures and theoretical frameworks. The findings show rapid publication growth, strong reliance on quantitative and predictive designs, and increasing attention to generative AI, adaptive learning, and learning analytics. However, evidence of improved academic performance varies according to whether studies measured perceptions, prediction accuracy, correlations or direct learning outcomes. Important gaps remain in the limited use of pedagogical frameworks, including TPACK, and the scarcity of experimental, longitudinal, and geographically diverse research. The study contributes an outcome-centred synthesis that connects bibliometric patterns with the methodological and pedagogical strengths of the available evidence.
Immersive virtual reality (IVR) supports the teaching of abstract, spatial, and microscopic concepts in higher education, although previous research has focused primarily on devices, access, and technical constraints. This systematic review examined IVR from the perspective of pedagogical design, science engagement, and students’ digital competence. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 2,177 Scopus-indexed articles were screened through identification, duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and eligibility assessment, resulting in 39 articles for bibliometric and thematic analysis. The findings revealed that IVR research in higher education was dominated by life sciences, quasi-experimental designs, and small samples of approximately 30 participants, with head-mounted displays (HMD) to cover the user’s field of view and create the sensation of being inside a three-dimensional environment, used in 23 of the 39 studies. The most common pedagogical patterns were simulation-based learning and virtual laboratories. Among the four engagement dimensions, emotional engagement was most consistently enhanced by IVR. Digital competence was rarely defined or measured explicitly and was more often represented implicitly through learners’ interaction behaviors in VR environments, with explicit measurements largely limited to pre-service teacher education studies. These findings indicate that IVR effectiveness does not result automatically from device quality but is mediated by pedagogical design, content alignment, formative debriefing, and users’ digital readiness. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs, multimodal measurements of engagement and digital competence, and discipline-specific pedagogical frameworks to realize the transformative potential of IVR in higher science education.
Teacher evaluation systems are expected to support professional development, but their developmental potential is often weakened when appraisal outcomes are not translated into learning opportunities. This study examined Zimbabwean secondary school teachers’ perceptions of the Results-Based Management (RBM) appraisal system and its contribution to professional development in the Kwekwe District. A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was used, combining survey data from 292 teachers with interview data from 12 purposively selected teachers, heads of department, and school heads. This design enabled the study to combine the broad patterns in the teachers’ perceptions with qualitative insights into how RBM is experienced, yielding a more detailed understanding of the connection between the appraisal system and professional development. The quantitative findings showed that the teachers recognised RBM’s formal structures, particularly performance standards (58.2%), collaborative target setting (82.5%) and rating discussions (62.7%). However, they perceived the system as having limited influence on professional growth because feedback was often reduced to ratings, monitoring was weak (68.5%), mentoring was inconsistent (54.8%), collaboration time was limited (65.8%), appraisal outcomes were rarely used to plan staff development (57.9%), and there was no support for external manpower development trainings (57.5%). The qualitative findings confirmed these patterns, showing that RBM was experienced more as a compliance and documentation process than a developmental mechanism. The study concludes that RBM’s limited contribution to teacher professional development stems mainly from implementation gaps rather than weakness in policy design. Drawing on goal-setting and formative evaluation theories, the findings showed that evaluation becomes developmental only when clear goals are supported by sustained feedback, monitoring, mentoring and follow-up developmental opportunities. The study contributes to teacher evaluation literature by framing RBM’s weaknesses as a breakdown in the evaluation-development chain. It recommends strengthening the provision of actionable feedback, institutionalising mentorship, linking appraisal outcomes to individualised development plans, and improving school-level support for continuous teacher development.
