Petal color is the key ornamental trait of Dianthus species, attracting both pollinators and human interest. Although pigment composition is widely regarded as the primary determinant of floral coloration, epidermal cell morphology may also influence color appearance by modulating light reflection and scattering. However, the interplay between epidermal structure, pigment composition, and observed color patterns of petals in Dianthus remains insufficiently characterized. In this study, 25 Dianthus germplasms were analyzed to investigate the relationship between pigment distribution pattern, epidermal cell structure, and floral color phenotype. The 25 petals were classified into four color categories, five distinct pigment distribution patterns and four types of upper epidermal cell morphologies based on clustering of quantitative colorimetric values and petal transverse structure. Correlation analyses revealed a significant association between epidermal morphology and petal coloration. Analysis of pigment composition and anthocyanin content in 11 carnation varieties revealed that flavonoids and anthocyanins are the major pigment components in carnation petals, and anthocyanins were detected exclusively in red- and pink-colored varieties. Transcriptome analysis revealed a positive correlation between the expression of DcaMYB4 and pigment accumulation. Overexpression of DcaMYB4 led to increased pigment accumulation and upregulated the expression of anthocyanin structural genes. Overall, our study provides a foundational basis for engineering multi-layered color traits in Dianthus through targeting both cellular morphology and key transcriptional regulators like DcaMYB4.
Anthriscus sylvestris, a member of the Apiaceae family, is an important medicinal plant resource, particularly valued for its lignan-rich roots, which have been widely studied for pharmaceutical applications. Although different plant parts often share common constituents, they may also contain unique metabolites that serve as alternative sources of bioactive materials. Furthermore, the composition and concentration of these metabolites can vary depending on cultivation conditions and harvest timing. In this study, the chemical profiles of the roots, leaves, and stems of A. sylvestris harvested at different harvest time were compared. Seven compounds, chlorogenic acid (1), cynaroside (2), 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3a), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3b), deoxypodophyllotoxin (4), yatein (5), and anthriscusin (6), were successively isolated. Quantitative analysis revealed that major lignans, deoxypodophyllotoxin (4) and yatein (5), were present in all plant organs, while flavonoid cynaroside (2) was exclusively detected in the leaves, and the lignan derivative anthriscusin (6) was specific to the roots. The content of these compounds varied according to both the plant organ and harvest time. Notably, level of cynaroside (2) concentration in the leaves were high during March and May but became undetectable in October. Major lignans, deoxypodophyllotoxin (4) and yatein (5), were most abundant in the roots, while their levels in the leaves and stems were comparatively lower. Collectively, these findings indicate that, in addition to roots, the leaves and stems of A. sylvestris could also serve as valuable sources of bioactive metabolites. Optimization of plant organs and harvest timing will enhance the efficient utilization of A. sylvestris in various functional and pharmaceutical applications.
The cucumber fruit bitterness is caused by cucurbitacins, which are a specific group of bitter tetracyclic triterpenoids, and they markedly diminish the eating quality and market value. Breeding for non-bitter cucumber cultivars is complicated, because the expression of bitterness is influenced by various environmental factors. This challenge is evident in Korean cucumber varieties with conditional bitterness, but no robust molecular markers are available for environment-independent marker-assisted selection (MAS). Whole genome re-sequencing (WGRS) was performed on eight cucumber lines. The sequencing achieved over 98
Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo (D. officinale) is a precious Chinese herbal medicine. Polysaccharides are one of the most important active components of D. officinale, and they exert a profound impact on the quality of D. officinale. Our previous study found that polysaccharides synthesis can be enhanced under low phosphorus condition, and this enhancement is positively correlated with the expression of glucomannan synthase genes DoCSLAs. However, the mechanism by which DoCSLAs regulate polysaccharides synthesis, as well as the regulatory pathway of DoCSLAs in response to low phosphorus condition, remain unclear. Here, we report that two glucomannan synthase genes, DoCSLA6 and DoCSLA7, promote polysaccharides accumulation in D. officinale. The proteins of DoCSLA6 and DoCSLA7 are subcellularly localized in the cell membrane. Transient overexpression of DoCSLA6 and DoCSLA7 in D. officinale protocorm-like bodies (PLBs) not only increased the content of polysaccharides but also promoting the ratio of mannose to glucose. There were multiple W-box binding sites in the promoter of DoCSLA6/DoCSLA7, and low phosphorus related WRKY family transcription factors were screened. Yeast one-hybrid and Dual-luciferase experiments showed that DoWRKY71 and DoWRKY75 regulate DoCSLA6, while DoWRKY70 and DoWRKY75 regulate DoCSLA7. Collectively, our findings reveal that DoWRKY70,75 respond to low-phosphorus signals, and then regulate DoCSLA6 and DoCSLA7 to promote the accumulation of polysaccharides, thereby enhancing the quality of D. officinale.
Indoor particulate matter (PM) remains a critical air-quality concern, yet plant-based mitigation studies have largely focused on leaves and rarely resolve organ-level retention or the role of cuticular wax fractions. PM capture by leaves and perianths of Phalaenopsis ‘Mantefon’, one of the most widely used indoor ornamental potted plants, was quantified following four weeks of controlled indoor exposure. Surface-deposited PM (SPM) was partitioned into SPM2.5 and SPM10, and wax-associated PM (WPM) was assessed via sequential wax extraction to operationally define epicuticular and intracuticular wax fractions (EW and IW). Perianths accumulated more SPM10 than leaves (6.4 vs. 2.5 µg·cm⁻²), whereas SPM2.5 loads were comparable between organs (5.6 vs. 4.5 µg·cm⁻²). Across organs, WPM was dominated by the IW-enriched fraction, reaching 11.4 µg·cm⁻² in leaves and 28.7 µg·cm⁻² in perianths, exceeding the EW fraction (6.0 and 8.7 µg·cm⁻²). Wax loads were greater in the IW fraction and positively correlated with WPM (R² = 0.698). These results demonstrate that perianths contribute substantially to whole-plant PM retention under indoor conditions and that PM sequestration is strongly associated with the IW-enriched fraction. Evaluating PM mitigation across plant organs and operationally defined wax fractions, rather than leaves alone, is therefore essential.
One of the key environmental elements that influences plant growth in vitro is light quality. Currently, a variety of horticultural plants are regenerated in vitro using light-emitting diode (LED) light sources to produce healthy, high-quality plants that can adapt well to ex vitro transplantation conditions. Investigating the impact of various spectrum light sources at various phases of in vitro regeneration is essential, though. The objective of this research was to examine how red (R), blue (B), white (W), red plus blue (RB, 1:1), red, green (G), and blue (RGB, 1:1:1) LEDs affect the growth of protocorm-like bodies (PLBs), shoot regeneration, and the rooting stages of shoots. The findings showed that B-LEDs were accountable for PLB proliferation, whereas R-LEDs were responsible for increased shoot regeneration and improved growth matrices with shoots and plantlets as compared to other LED treatments. Plant height, leaf count, and dry matter percentage were all higher in the plantlets that were regenerated under R-LED. On the other hand, more root regeneration and longer roots were caused by the B-LED treatment. Plants cultivated under RB LEDs had greater levels of carotenoid pigments, total chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b. When compared to other treatments, photosynthetic fluorescence characteristics like maximum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm), photochemical quenching coefficient (qP), relative electron transport in PSII (ETRII), and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) were lower in plants cultivated under R-LED treatment. The best LED for in vitro Cymbidium ‘Snow Pearl’ plant regeneration was as follows: The B-LED was good for PLB proliferation, the R-LED was appropriate during shoot regeneration, and the growth of plantlets, the physiological characteristics such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoid content and number of epidermal cells per unit area were optimum with the plants grown under RB LED light.
Floral scent represents a key horticultural trait in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. The unique flower heads (capitula) provide distinct niches that host diverse endophytic microbial communities. However, the relationship between floral volatile organic compounds (FVOCs) and endophyte community assembly remains largely unexplored. In this study, non-targeted volatilomics (GC-MS) was integrated with high-throughput sequencing (16S rRNA and ITS) to examine the associations between FVOC compounds and endophytic communities across five capitula morphologies of ornamental C. morifolium Ramat. cultivars. Among the identified 32 FVOCs (78.13
Zinc/iron-regulated transporter-like protein (ZIP) gene family plays a key role in the transport of metals, such as cadmium (Cd), which is critical for various plant functions. Although there has been extensive research on this gene family across multiple species, detailed exploration with respect to Malus crabapple is still lacking. In this study, we identified 23 McZIP genes from the Malus crabapple genome, categorizing them into four distinct subfamilies. Our analysis of gene structure and conserved motifs revealed notable evolutionary conservation, suggesting functional diversification within the family. Chromosomal mapping and synteny analysis revealed that the expression of the McZIP genes was unevenly distributed, with five pairs showing tandem duplication and three pairs exhibiting segmental duplication. Promoter region analysis revealed several cis-elements that are potentially involved in responses to environmental stressors, such as cold and hypoxia, as well as in hormone pathways, including those mediated by methyl jasmonate and abscisic acid. Transcriptome profiling revealed that 15 McZIP genes were differentially expressed in response to cadmium treatment in crabapple roots. Among them, McZIP5/6 expression was consistently upregulated with increasing Cd exposure, whereas McZIP3/12/13/17 expression initially increased but then decreased with increasing Cd concentration. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) further revealed that McZIP13, with a yellow module, was significantly correlated with 50 µmol/L CdCl₂ treatment. Genes within this module were enriched primarily in pathways such as glutathione metabolism, MAPK signaling, and flavonoid biosynthesis, indicating its involvement in various detoxification and signaling processes. Based on these findings, a significant co-expression regulatory network comprising 26 transcription factors (including MYB, WRKY, NAC, etc.) and McZIP13 was constructed. Furthermore, the promoter region of McZIP13 contains two WRKY binding sites and two MYB binding sites, suggesting that its expression may be regulated by WRKY and MYB transcription factors. These results provide valuable insights into the potential role of the McZIP gene family in heavy metal stress responses in Malus crabapple.
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) productivity is highly sensitive to water deficit, a condition of increasing concern in Mediterranean viticulture. The cultivar ‘Italia’, one of the most economically important table grapes in southern Italy, was selected to investigate physiological and molecular responses to drought. Six candidate genes previously identified in transcriptomic analyses (VvPP2C4, VvPP2C8, VvGolS1, VvGolS2, VvHSP18, and VvRD26) were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR under controlled water stress conditions. The results revealed significant changes in expression, with four genes showing marked differential regulation, particularly those related to ABA signaling and osmoprotection. These findings provide the first targeted validation of candidate drought-responsive genes in ‘Italia’, highlighting their functional role and offering valuable information for breeding strategies aimed at improving grapevine resilience and sustainability under climate change.
Bulk density, which characterizes the compactness of a substrate, influences not only the proportions of air, water, and solids but also the dielectric permittivity, thereby affecting soil moisture sensor measurements. While calibration of frequency domain reflectometry (FDR) sensors has been extensively studied, the effect of bulk density in soilless substrates remains underexplored. This study evaluated the impact of bulk density on FDR calibration in a peat-based substrate at four bulk density levels (0.125, 0.140, 0.155, and 0.170 g·cm− 3). Bulk density significantly affected the slope of the calibration equation (pslope × bulk density < 0.001). Higher bulk density produced steeper slopes and lower intercepts, leading to a volumetric water content (VWC) error of up to 0.08 m3·m− 3 when unadjusted calibration equations were applied. While errors may be minor within the plant–available water range (0.30–0.40 m3·m− 3), they can become substantial under drier or wetter conditions. Therefore, careful attention to bulk density during calibration is necessary to ensure accurate VWC measurement and, in turn, reliable irrigation scheduling.
Zoysiagrass is highly valued in landscaping applications due to its adaptability. However, interspecific relationships among different Zoysia species remain unclear; thus, chromosomal studies are necessary to inform breeding programs for these species. Ribosomal DNAs serve as cytogenetic markers for chromosomal analysis; however, relevant studies on Zoysia species are limited. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the chromosome composition and genome size of Zoysia japonica, Z. tenuifolia, and Z. sinica using flow cytometry and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with pre-labeled oligonucleotide probes (PLOPs) targeting 5S rDNAs, 45S rDNAs, and telomeric repeats. The chromosome lengths were 0.58–1.59 μm in Z. japonica, 1.23–2.32 μm in Z. tenuifolia, and 1.08–3.14 μm in Z. sinica. All three species exhibited 2n = 4x = 40 with slightly distinct karyotypic formulas. PLOP-FISH analysis revealed two 5S rDNA loci and four 45S rDNA loci across the species, with two of the 45S loci colocalized with 5S rDNA on chromosome #7. These colocalized 5–45S rDNA loci were in the interstitial region of the short arm. The 2C nuclear DNA contents were 0.86 pg for Z. japonica, 0.83 pg for Z. tenuifolia, and 0.80 pg for Z. sinica. Physical mapping of these universal repeat sequences, combined with genome size estimation, provides chromosomal-level information on the Zoysia genome organization. Our research will lay a foundation for further molecular-level genomic research into, and breeding efforts for Zoysia species.
This study investigated the metabolic basis of color differentiation in Curcuma alismatifolia sterile bracts using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based widely targeted metabolomics. We identified 1034 metabolites across different colored bract regions, with predominant classes including organic acids, amino acids and derivatives, flavonoids, lipids, terpenoids, organic heterocyclic compounds, and phenolic acids. Statistical analysis (VIP > 1, p < 0.05) revealed 118 and 104 differentially accumulated metabolites in two variety comparisons, with 61 common metabolites. Pathway analysis identified amino acid metabolism and organic acid metabolism as the most significantly altered pathways. Further analysis of the variegated regions demonstrated significant accumulation of succinic anhydride, L-tryptophan, DL-indole-3-lactic acid, uridine 5’-diphosphate galactose, and uridine 5’-diphosphate glucose, along with specific enrichment of various anthocyanin derivatives including malvidin-3-galactoside chloride, oenin chloride, and keracyanin chloride. Our results indicate that L-tryptophan, citric acid, and isocitrate are consistently associated with bract differentiation, potentially through mechanisms such as precursor supply and vacuolar pH regulation that require further validation. These findings provide insights into the metabolic framework underlying C. alismatifolia bract coloration, offering perspectives on Zingiberaceae pigmentation mechanisms and identifying potential biomarkers for ornamental plant breeding. This work provides information for the molecular characterization of this horticulturally important species and suggests candidate metabolic engineering strategies that warrant further investigation for trait improvement.
Two Ficus carica L. cultivars with contrasting saline-alkali tolerance—‘Jinaofen’ (STJ, tolerant) and ‘Japanese purple fruit’ (STR, sensitive)—were selected to explore the physiological responses and metabolic adaptation mechanisms of this species under saline-alkali stress. The seedlings were treated with a mixed saline-alkali solution (200 mmol/L, NaCl: NaHCO₃ = 1:1 molar ratio), and healthy, disease-free mature leaves were sampled on days 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 of stress. Proline, soluble sugar, superoxide dismutase, and catalase were assessed as key physiological indices, followed by transcriptome sequencing. A total of 2863 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, including 1680 upregulated and 1183 downregulated genes. Key regulators associated with saline-alkali tolerance were screened via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis and gene ontology functional annotation. These regulators encompassed WRKY, C2H2, bHLH, AP2/ERF-ERF, MYB, and NAC transcription factor families, as well as functional genes FcCIPK11 and CML. These DEGs were functionally categorized into two core pathways: carbohydrate metabolism, involving α-glucosidase, sucrose phosphate synthase, sucrose synthase 5, and α-amylase, and plant hormone signal transduction, involving auxin-inducible protein IAA4 isoform X1 and auxin-responsive protein SAUR36. These pathways synergistically mediate the differential saline-alkali tolerance between the two cultivars, providing systematic molecular perspectives for elucidating the saline-alkali stress response mechanisms of F. carica L. and related candidate genes for its genetic improvement.
A stable restorer-of-fertility (Rf) gene is essential for efficient F1 hybrid seed production using cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). Ms and Ms2 are known Rf loci in onion (Allium cepa L.). Although unstable male fertility restoration by Ms2 has been reported in some accessions, its stability in the CMS-S cytoplasm type (cytotype), which is widely used in F1 hybrid breeding, remains uncharacterized. To investigate this, segregating populations for both Rf loci were evaluated over five years for male fertility phenotypes and their corresponding genotypes. In onions with the CMS-S cytotype, the Ms2 locus conferred partial restoration of male fertility. Partially male-fertile (PMF) plants produced fewer pollen grains, many of which were deformed or non-viable. Pollen viability assays consistently demonstrated that plants with the CMS-R cytotype exhibited complete fertility restoration by either Rf locus, whereas the degree of restoration in plants with the CMS-S cytotype varied depending on the Ms2 genotype. PMF plants also produced fewer seeds than fully male-fertile plants when self-pollinated. Transcriptional analysis suggested that partial restoration may result from insufficient suppression of orf725, the CMS-inducing gene, by Ms2. The CMS-S cytotype exhibited higher orf725 expression than CMS-R, indicating that elevated transcription levels in CMS-S may exceed the suppression ability of Ms2. Unexpectedly, the PMF phenotype was also observed in plants with the CMS-S cytotype carrying both dominant Ms and Ms2 alleles. These results suggest a potential interaction between Ms and Ms2 in the restoration of male fertility in onion.
The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of desiccation time and methods on P. edulis pollen viability, stigma receptivity, pistil-pollen interaction and fruit quality assessment. For this, fresh pollen (control) and dried pollen grains were distributed in Petri dishes and subjected to drying in a warm-air oven or silica gel, both for periods of 20, 40, 60 and 120 min. In vitro pollen germination, histochemical evaluation, in vivo pollination, fruiting and seed formation tests showed better performance of pollen samples desiccated in silica gel for 40 min. Stigmas of P. edulis were highly receptive (100
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of root zone temperature (RZT) on the growth of medicinal crop seedlings. Seed tubers of Codonopsis lanceolata and seeds of Rehmannia glutinosa were sown and, following germination or sprouting, transplanted into seedling boxes with controlled RZTs. Four chillers were installed to regulate the RZT, and temperature-controlled water was circulated continuously through five irrigation tubes embedded within the root media to maintain RZTs of 9 °C, 12 °C, 15 °C, and 18 °C. Seedlings were grown under these conditions, and growth parameters were measured 34 days after sowing for Rehmannia glutinosa and 47 days for Codonopsis lanceolata. In both species, increasing the RZT from 9 °C to 18 °C resulted in a linear or exponential increase in shoot height, leaf length, leaf width, shoot fresh and dry weights, root length, and root fresh and dry weights. Furthermore, higher RZTs led to increased tissue nutrient content and decreased nutrient concentrations in the root medium. Most of the analyzed nutrient elements showed significant trends of linear or quadratic regression. Based on these results, it is recommended to maintain the RZT at or above 18 °C to promote optimal seedling growth of Rehmannia glutinosa and Codonopsis lanceolata. Considering the growing need for standardized medicinal crop seedlings suitable for mechanical transplanting, these findings can serve as a foundation for controlled seedling production systems.
Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) is an important crop used both for consumption and as a cucurbit rootstock. We evaluated the genetic diversity and performed a GWAS on 167 accessions, mostly from East Asia, using 10,528 high-quality SNPs obtained by genotyping-by-sequencing. Four traits were investigated: fruit shape, fruit rind color, leaf lobes, and leaf silver patches. Phylogenetic, PCA, and population structure analyses divided the accessions into three subpopulations which were consistent with the classification based on geographical origin and usage. Pairwise genetic differentiation values indicated the greatest divergence between subpopulations 1 and 3 (0.161), while AMOVA showed that most genetic variation (86.5
Quantifying the genetic variability and diversity of Passiflora spp. species is essential to determine their fruit, ornamental and medicinal value. The objective of this study was to evaluate the phenotypic diversity of 114 spp. genotypes based on 74 morphological descriptors related to the leaves, flowers and whole plant, as well as to eliminate redundancy through a list of minimum descriptors for characterization of the germplasm. For this purpose, we submitted 18 quantitative (morphometric) traits to principal component analysis, discarding the traits with low contribution (≤ 6.0
New apple cultivars develop to satisfy the market demand and extend the apple consumption. However, the comparisons of seasonal and cultivar-dependent studies remain limited. This study investigated the overall fruit quality attributes, mineral nutrients, and targeted metabolites of nine apple cultivars harvested from late July to mid-September. Significant variations in fruit attributes, such as fruit fresh weight, firmness, soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), peel hue angle value, and starch pattern index were observed with harvest season. Early-season cultivars, such as ‘Summer King’, exhibited higher TA, malic acid, and amino acids, while mid-season cultivars like ‘Arisoo’ and ‘Picnic’ had higher levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Metabolomic profiling revealed that early-season apples, which were less mature, contained higher levels of organic acids and phenolic compounds, while mid-season apples had greater VOC accumulation. Seasonal apples, which can provide early-season apples, may exhibit different maturation and ripening processes compared to mid-season cultivars. The results indicated that targeted metabolites, fruit quality attributes, and mineral nutrients could respond differently to the fruit harvest season from early to mid-season cultivars at harvest.
Climate change intensifies the frequency and severity of abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, and flooding, often exposing crops to multiple stresses simultaneously. To understand multifactorial stress adaptation, this study investigated the effects of ethylene (ACC), abscisic acid (ABA), and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) on three lettuce cultivars (Volare, Flandria, and Asia Butterhead) across three concentrations. Physiological and biochemical parameters, including growth, chlorophyll and phenolic contents, and antioxidant enzyme activities, were assessed alongside expression of key transcription factors and signal transduction genes. Cultivar differences were pronounced. Ethylene promoted modest growth in Volare and Asia Butterhead but suppressed growth and elevated oxidative markers in Flandria. ABA increased water content in Volare but reduced chlorophyll, whereas Flandria showed growth inhibition with increased phenolics, indicating an antioxidant-based adaptive response. Asia Butterhead was relatively unresponsive to ABA. H₂O₂ exerted generally negative effects across cultivars, with modest chlorophyll increases suggesting compensatory adjustments. At the molecular level, ERF5, ERF13, ABF2, and ABI4, along with antioxidant enzyme genes CAT and SOD2, displayed treatment-specific regulation. Promoter analysis revealed multiple cis-regulatory motifs, supporting crosstalk between hormone and ROS pathways. Overall, this study highlights cultivar-dependent and multilayered regulations underlying stress resilience in lettuce, offering insights into tolerance to complex abiotic stresses in leafy crops.
