The abundance of scholarly papers creates information overload for researchers. This scoping review uses the Arksey and O’Malley methodology to analyze existing AI-based technologies for literature review. It defines the functions of Google Scholar Labs, Scopus AI, Web of Science Research Assistant, NotebookLM, Elicit, Research Rabbit, Connected Papers, and LeapSpace documented in 31 recent studies from 2022 to 2026. The literature review examines literature discovery, evidence screening, citation management, and mapping, as well as uncovering research gaps and synthesizing scholarly evidence. These tools can reduce the time it takes to manage a large volume of literature and help researchers uncover relevant literature, understand contradictory or disconnected literature, and even reveal new research paths. It can help answer research questions. However, it can create risks of inaccurate information, plagiarism, bias, privacy concerns, and overreliance on automation for research synthesis. The authors of this scoping literature review concluded that AI assistants for literature reviews should be an addition to, and not a replacement for, critical reflection. The authors recommend approaches such as human oversight and using AI to check sources for literature reviews.
As Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) tools collect data from both reliable and unreliable sources across the internet, concerns have been raised about the credibility of the output content learners are exposed to when seeking these tools for assistance. To address this problematic issue, our study tests the development of a pedagogical assistant trained on a personalized course framework; Besides its equipment with content that aligns with classroom lectures, the virtual assistant was given a comprehensive set of instructions guiding its behavior; Restricting its responses to the provided course material, forbidding the provision of information from any external sources as an initial action to battle against information credibility issues, and limiting its interactions to course-related discussions to promote engagement and mitigate distractions. The study explores the perceived credibility of the tested agent alongside the perceived impact on students’ learning engagement. This study is significant in informing the design of credible, curriculum-aligned AI assistants for EFL learning contexts. To achieve the required results, our study adopts DeLone & McLean’s theoretical framework alongside a quantitative research design with a structured questionnaire as a data-gathering tool. The sample of this study consists of N = 63 students of the Higher School of Teachers, Moulay Ismail University. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25. Students exhibited positive perceptions towards the custom agent, which they perceived as an engaging and credible source of information that also aligns with the course content they are exposed to during formal lectures. Our findings also revealed a strong correlation between Perceived Impact on Learning Engagement (PILE) and Perceived Credibility (PC), with r (61) = .780. The study acknowledges some limitations and offers recommendations for future studies.
The use of simplified text in English reading textbooks is crucial for teaching language features, building a sense of familiarity, and improving comprehension skills. However, exclusive dependence on such texts may encourage passive reading practices and engagement with content at a surface level, thus limiting the development of metacognitive awareness in reading. This study proposed the intervention of periodical texts within an online collaborative workspace to promote more active reading practices. Through this approach, this study examines its effects on learners’ metacognitive awareness. Adopting a mixed-methods quasi-experimental design and think-aloud protocol, the study involved foundation students at a public university in Malaysia. The experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in seven strategies namely declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge, planning, comprehension monitoring, information management, and evaluation. The qualitative findings further revealed that students applied strategies such as task division, exchanging opinions, directing focus, pausing to think, rereading, relating to their own experience, and comparing understanding. Moving beyond text simplification as a dominant scaffold in reading, this study empirically demonstrates the value of enhancing metacognitive knowledge and regulation as a dynamic and socially responsive strategy. The proposed intervention is significant for pedagogical practice as it foregrounds constructivist, collaborative and reflective practice, promote learner-centered reading activity, and facilitates learner engagement. Dissemination of these findings is expected to offer evidence supporting the application of the intervention as part of reading development.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has become an important approach for simultaneously developing language proficiency and subject knowledge. Yet, research specifically addressing its application in primary English education remains dispersed across pedagogical, linguistic, and multilingual perspectives. This study aimed to map contemporary CLIL scholarship and synthesize empirical evidence concerning its pedagogical practices, learner outcomes, and implementation challenges in primary English education. A Bibliometric-Systematic Literature Review (B-SLR) was conducted using the Scopus database. Bibliographic coupling analysis was performed on 249 open-access English-language articles published between 2021 and 2025, and systematic screening, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) procedures, identified 22 empirical primary-level studies for thematic synthesis. Four intellectual clusters emerged, reflecting multilingual pedagogical innovation, language and curriculum integration, learner engagement, and teacher professional development. The systematic synthesis further identified six interconnected themes involving multimodal and technology-enhanced learning, collaborative practices, language and content development, learner motivation, inclusive practices, and implementation sustainability. Overall, CLIL was associated with positive language, content, and engagement outcomes, although teacher preparedness, learner diversity, access, and sustainability remain important concerns. By connecting broader CLIL research trends with primary-level evidence, this review clarifies the field’s movement towards multilingual and learner-centered pedagogy. Future research should prioritize longitudinal, inclusive, and context-sensitive investigations to strengthen sustainable CLIL implementation.
Formative assessment can support self-regulated learning, yet limited empirical evidence has established how specific formative assessment practices predict different dimensions of self-regulated learning in Vietnamese higher education. This study examined university EFL students’ levels of self-regulated learning and perceptions of formative assessment practices, investigated the relationship between the two constructs, and determined the predictive contributions of teacher feedback, peer feedback, and self-assessment and reflection to overall self-regulated learning and its dimensions. Using a quantitative cross-sectional predictive design, data were collected through a 50-item self-report questionnaire completed by 268 undergraduate students at a public university in Vietnam. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. Students reported relatively high levels of self-regulated learning and generally positive perceptions of formative assessment. Formative assessment and self-regulated learning were strongly and positively correlated (r = .848, p < .001). The three formative assessment practices jointly explained 72.9% of the variance in overall self-regulated learning. Self-assessment and reflection was the strongest predictor, followed by teacher feedback, while peer feedback made a smaller but statistically significant contribution. The dimension-specific analyses further revealed that different formative assessment practices predicted different aspects of students’ regulation of learning. These findings contribute context-specific evidence that learner-involving assessment is particularly important for developing self-regulated learning in university EFL education. EFL instructors should therefore integrate structured self-assessment, reflective activities, timely teacher feedback, and scaffolded peer feedback. Future research should employ mixed methods and multi-institutional samples to strengthen explanatory depth and generalizability.
English programs in early childhood education now focus heavily on cognitive and linguistic benchmarks, but three issues tend to get overlooked in the process: affective and moral development are usually theorized on their own, language outcomes and prosocial outcomes are studied separately, and songs are still treated as a bonus activity rather than a genuine part of the curriculum. This study set out to address those gaps by developing a 12-week, curriculum-embedded song-based English program designed to build vocabulary and instill humanistic values in children aged four to six simultaneously. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, 60 children were divided into an intervention group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). ANCOVA results revealed significant gains for the intervention group in both receptive vocabulary (d = 0.94, p < .001) and productive vocabulary use (d = 0.82, p = .001), and musical engagement was positively associated with retention (r = .58, p < .001). A thematic analysis of the qualitative data identified four ways children internalized values through the songs: taking turns, responding with empathy, regulating emotions, and adapting activities so everyone could participate, largely shaped by teacher scaffolding and moments of reflection. Together, these findings support the Humanistic-Musical Language Acquisition Model (HMLAM), demonstrating that predictable musical patterns and value-driven lyrics work in tandem to reduce communication anxiety and foster prosocial growth. By treating music not as decoration but as a genuine dual-pathway component of the curriculum, this study offers curriculum designers and policymakers a practical, evidence-based approach to integrating early bilingual instruction with humanistic education.
This study is an attempt towards exploring pedagogic significance of YouTube videos related to learning of pronunciation in English as foreign language context. The scope of the study emphasizes the effect of YouTube-integrated instruction on accelerating English pronunciation skills within a blended learning landscape in Uzbekistan. Employing a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods design with both quantitative and qualitative data collection to study the cause-and-effect, the research involved a sample of 40 graduation students which was selected by purposive sampling, and assigned to control (n = 20) and experimental (n = 20) groups. The experimental group was given twelve weeks of pronunciation training using curated YouTube videos, while the control group was taught by the routine traditional method. A pronunciation assessment tool was developed and was later validated by five TESOL/ELT experts (CVI = 0.92), was administered as pre- and post-intervention. Reliability was confirmed through a pilot study (Cronbach’s α = 0.88). Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant improvement in the experimental group’s pronunciation scores (M_pre = 2.79, M_post = 3.83; t (29) = 7.11, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.03), with special reference to the segmental clarity and Suprasegmental perception and performance. In addition to quantitative analysis, thematic analysis of semi- structured interviews with seven EFL instructors were administered through Braun and Clarke’s six-step model. As per the need, Coding procedure was followed and eventually three key themes were identified: (1) multimodal engagement boosted learner attention, (2) self-paced video content increased confidence, and (3) Suprasegmental features remained cognitively demanding without scaffolding.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has become a dominant approach to English language education; however, empirical evidence regarding its effectiveness in multilingual Indian higher education remains limited. This study investigates the implementation of CLT in multilingual English language classrooms at Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre (JECRC) University and the University of Engineering and Management (UEM), Jaipur, with particular emphasis on communicative competence, learner engagement, multilingual classroom practices, and alignment with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted among 300 undergraduate students using a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, Pearson’s correlation, and multiple regression. The findings indicate that students hold positive perceptions of CLT and that communicative teaching practices significantly enhance communicative competence and learner engagement. Multilingual classroom practices further support collaborative learning, improve comprehension, and encourage active classroom participation. The study also demonstrates a strong alignment between CLT and the learner-centred, multilingual, and competency-based objectives of NEP 2020. By providing empirical evidence from multilingual private universities in Rajasthan, the study contributes to contemporary English language teaching research, and it highlights the value of integrating communicative pedagogy with multilingual instructional practices to strengthen higher education in India.
This study investigated whether pre-service English teachers’ breadth of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI)-mediated English text work is associated with their awareness of linguistic norms embedded in GenAI suggestions and with their subsequent acceptance of localized English in teaching. By focusing on the micro-level mechanism linking everyday GenAI-assisted revision to pedagogical dispositions toward linguistic plurality, the study addresses a tension extending beyond China to teacher education worldwide, as GenAI-driven standardization conflicts with the value of local Englishes. Its novelty lies in testing linguistic-norm awareness as a mediator through a temporally separated design, rather than assuming exposure alone transforms attitudes. The study surveyed 316 Chinese pre-service teachers across three waves, controlling for baseline acceptance, and estimated associations via confirmatory factor analysis and a baseline-adjusted path model. Results showed that broader GenAI text work was reliably associated with linguistic-norm awareness. This awareness, in turn, had a statistically reliable but substantively small indirect association with later acceptance. The direct path from text-work breadth to acceptance was negligible, and baseline acceptance accounted for most variance, which indicates high attitudinal stability. These findings suggest that broad GenAI text work may make normative bias noticeable. However, noticing alone is insufficient, and teacher education must transform it into principled comparison of standard, idiomatic, and localized forms. Teacher education programs should therefore use GenAI-mediated text work as a starting point for such comparison, because exposure alone cannot change entrenched attitudes and principled comparison is needed for inclusive teaching.
Despite its pedagogical value, narrative writing remains underutilized in Saudi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curricula, and limited research has examined Saudi female university students’ experiences and perceptions of fictional and nonfiction genres. This study explored the integration of narrative writing as a genre into the English language teaching curriculum for university learners in Saudi Arabia, articulated the underlying theoretical framework, and examined the role of narratives in EFL classrooms. It combined quantitative and qualitative techniques to evaluate the experiences and perceptions of personal narrative writing and to inform the design of meaningful literacy tasks for language learners. Students’ narratives were analyzed using content and thematic approaches, supplemented by descriptive and linguistic analyses. Their responses to the task-completion questions were examined to understand their perceptions of the writing experience and emotional engagement. The results demonstrate that the effective and purposeful use of narrative writing can maximize learners’ creativity and engagement with the target language, enhance their language knowledge, cultivate creative writing skills, and increase enjoyment. These findings contribute to the field of English language pedagogy and support English language educators and researchers in developing strategies and methods for improving students’ writing skills. Integrating narrative writing into EFL classes is recommended to enhance language fluency, personal voices, and learner engagement.
This study investigates English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ perceptions of ethical artificial intelligence (AI) use in teaching, learning, and assessment within an Omani higher education context. Despite rapid AI adoption in education, institutional governance frameworks remain critically underdeveloped, particularly in EFL contexts — creating an urgent need for empirical, locally grounded research. Using a convergent mixed-methods design, quantitative data were collected from 52 EFL faculty members through a structured 52-item Likert-scale questionnaire, complemented by focus group discussions with nine purposively selected teachers drawn from the same participant pool. Analysis across five constructs revealed high levels of AI literacy and ethical awareness (M = 4.09), ethical responsibility and academic integrity (M = 4.19), and positive pedagogical engagement (M = 4.11). The most critical finding was a significant institutional policy deficit reflected in the lowest construct mean (M = 3.25), with the majority of participants reporting an absence of clear guidelines, consequences, or detection tools. Future orientation and framework acceptance recorded the highest mean (M = 4.30), with 98.1% of participants endorsing formal adoption of an Ethical AI Responsibility (E.A.R.) framework. Qualitative findings corroborated a persistent awareness–practice gap, student over-reliance on AI, and inadequate institutional scaffolding. The study recommends urgent development of context-specific, human-centered AI governance frameworks that bridge individual ethical awareness and institutional policy action, with particular relevance to Omani and comparable EFL higher education contexts.
Universities offer internship programs to help students apply academic knowledge, gain skills, and support future careers. These programs should be updated to meet evolving labor market demands. In EFL, emphasis has been on pre-service teacher education, with internships for EFL learners. Studies on internships for EFL students in non-educational courses, such as literature and translation, are few. Given the importance of English in globalization and soft skills aligned with SDG 4, addressing this gap is vital. The current study surveyed 82 EFL interns who completed 8-week training at 24 organizations, as well as their representatives. It evaluates internship programs for EFL students in non-educational tracks by examining the perceptions of interns and representatives of training institutions to improve curricula and better meet labor market needs. Quantitative data (intern responses) were analyzed descriptively and with t-tests in SPSS, while qualitative data (institution responses) were analyzed thematically using MAXQDA. The study found that the trainees and institutions were satisfied with the internship plan and its management. Nevertheless, they reported a mismatch between the skills targeted by the academic program and the skills needed in the labor market. These findings imply that EFL programs should be updated in line with the perspectives of all stakeholders to ensure that students are equipped with the skills and knowledge needed to succeed in the 21st-century workplace, while also responding to the knowledge-based economy and to global calls for inclusive, high-quality education under SDG 4.
Vocabulary plays a significant role in language learning and language development. It is important to acquire sufficient vocabulary to ensure effective communication. Some studies show the efficiency of narrow reading for general and academic vocabulary learning, but fewer studies investigate the effects of narrow reading on technical vocabulary, such as Business English vocabulary. This study aimed to investigate Business English vocabulary acquisition through theme-based narrow reading. The main purpose of this study was to fill the literature gap on learning Business English vocabulary through narrow reading, thereby contributing to the broader field of second language acquisition. This study employed a one-group quasi-experimental design and utilized purposive sampling to recruit twenty-five Chinese first-year students majoring in Business English, together with one Business English teacher as an instructor. This study covered quantitative and qualitative data, but this article only focuses on the quantitative part. The findings showed that students performed better in vocabulary recognition than in vocabulary mastery during the narrow reading process, and their overall performance fluctuated. However, they made significant progress after the narrow reading training. The findings indicated that narrow reading significantly improved participants’ Business English vocabulary acquisition. This study will be beneficial to English learners, teachers, vocabulary researchers, reading material designers, and curriculum developers. For future studies in this field, researchers can use more groups in the experimental designs to investigate other variables of narrow reading on other branches of technical vocabulary. Besides, narrow reading can be explored more using other research methods on technical vocabulary acquisition.
English aspectual forms remain a significant challenge for EFL learners because their accurate use depends on the interaction of grammar, semantics, discourse context, and communicative purpose. In Uzbekistan, where English is primarily learned through formal classroom instruction and learners have limited exposure to authentic language use, mastering aspectual distinctions remains particularly difficult. This study investigates the challenges associated with learning the synergetic nature of English aspectual forms and evaluates the effectiveness of an innovative pedagogical approach designed to improve learners’ conceptual understanding and communicative use. The study is significant because it provides evidence-based insights that can inform grammar instruction, curriculum development, and teacher education in Uzbek EFL classrooms. A mixed-methods research design was employed. Quantitative data were collected from 60 undergraduate EFL teachers, who were assigned to experimental and control groups and completed pre- and post-tests measuring their understanding and use of English aspectual forms. Qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews with six EFL instructors to explore instructional practices and perceptions of learner difficulties. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, while interview data were examined through thematic analysis. The findings indicate that learners experience persistent difficulties with progressive and perfect aspectual forms because of limited conceptual understanding, cross-linguistic interference, and challenges in linking grammatical rules to communicative contexts. Learners receiving the innovative instructional approach demonstrated greater improvement than those receiving conventional instruction. The findings support the integration of form, meaning, and context in grammar teaching and offer practical implications for EFL pedagogy in Uzbekistan.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prominent in English language education, offering new possibilities for supporting reading instruction and independent learning among English as a second language (ESL) learner. This study aims to examine the existing body of empirical research concerning the use of AI to improve reading skills and encourage self-regulated learning (SRL). The significance of this study lies in its synthesis of fragmented data to provide a unified framework for future technology-mediated reading instruction. Using a systematic literature review approach that strictly followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework, 19 empirical studies were extracted from major academic databases including Scopus, ERIC, and Google Scholar and analyzed through thematic analysis. The synthesized results reveal that AI applications, particularly adaptive learning platforms and conversational agents, effectively support reading development by giving feedback, personal learning experiences, and opportunities for learners to monitor their own progress. Concurrently, the results highlight several concerns, including excessive dependence on technological support and limited development of higher-order reading skills. Overall, AI can make a valuable contribution to reading instruction when integrated with pedagogical practices that encourage learner independence. Future research should investigate the influence of AI on reading comprehension through longitudinal studies conducted in authentic educational settings.
Recent advances in artificial intelligence have led to the development of automated speaking assessment systems capable of evaluating oral proficiency with increasing accuracy. This study compares Artificial Intelligence (AI) powered automated speaking scoring and human evaluation in assessing the oral proficiency of 74 Saudi English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Participants completed a picture-description speaking task, which was evaluated by both Claude and two trained human raters using identical holistic and analytic speaking rubrics. The study examined holistic speaking scores and five analytic dimensions: coherence, cohesion, content development, grammar, and vocabulary. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, comparative analyses, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), Weighted Kappa coefficients, and Bland-Altman analysis. Results showed no significant difference between AI-generated and human-assigned holistic speaking scores. Similarly, cohesion and grammar demonstrated strong similarity between the two assessment approaches. However, significant differences were observed for content development, vocabulary, and coherence, with Claude consistently assigning slightly higher scores than the human raters. Agreement analyses revealed good-to-strong agreement across both holistic and analytic assessments. The findings suggest that AI-powered speaking assessment can produce evaluations broadly comparable to human judgments while demonstrating strong consistency across multiple dimensions of oral proficiency. The study supports the potential of AI-assisted speaking assessment as a reliable complement to human evaluation in EFL contexts.
As part of the extended National Foreign Languages Project (2008–2035), Vietnam has adopted the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) as a top-down strategy to enhance the quality of English teaching and learning. This study examines how English teachers responded to this curriculum reform at a Vietnamese university. Using a mixed-methods sequential design, the study collected data through questionnaires with 36 EFL teachers and in-depth interviews with 8. The findings reveal that while teachers are making various efforts to adapt to the CEFR-aligned curriculum, most changes remain limited to coping techniques. Instead of helping students attain the required level of language proficiency, teachers primarily adopt strategies designed to help students pass the compulsory CEFR-aligned exams, viewing this as a necessary teaching adjustment. At the grassroots level, the teachers who have not yet gained ownership of the change and who lack institutional support continue to rely primarily on short-term, situational strategies rather than sustainable approaches to improving students’ overall language proficiency. Based on the findings, the article provides implications and recommendations for using the CEFR to set learning outcomes and reform language curriculum, ensuring it serves as a tool for meaningful language development rather than merely an assessment benchmark.
The COVID-19 pandemic considerably reshaped higher education, prompting universities worldwide to expand their reliance on online and blended modes of teaching and learning. This study investigates students’ experiences, preferences, and perceived effectiveness of mixed learning environments in the post-pandemic context of Kazakhstan. A quantitative cross-sectional design was employed, involving 515 undergraduate students from three universities in Astana. Data was collected through a structured online questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson’s Chi-square tests. The findings indicate that while 42.5% of students prefer traditional face-to-face instruction due to higher motivation and interaction, a majority (50.7%) favor blended learning as it combines flexibility with instructional effectiveness. Only six to seven% of respondents support online learning. Furthermore, 74.8% of students expressed a preference for retaining online elements particularly recorded lectures within future teaching models. A statistically significant relationship was observed between age and learning preferences (χ² = 106.9, p < .001), with younger students showing stronger inclination toward blended learning. The results suggest that blended learning represents a sustainable and pedagogically effective model for post-COVID higher education in Kazakhstan. The study highlights the need for institutional investment in digital infrastructure, faculty training, and inclusive policies to support hybrid learning environments.
The globalization of healthcare has intensified the need for effective English communication among nursing professionals, particularly for students in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts. As English increasingly functions as a lingua franca in healthcare, nursing education must address the limitations of general English instruction in preparing students for the communicative demands of clinical practice. This systematic review examines the effectiveness of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programs in enhancing nursing students’ clinical communication skills across diverse educational and cultural contexts. By synthesizing fragmented evidence across educational settings, this review provides an evidence-based foundation for curriculum development, pedagogical practice, and future research in nursing English education. Guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework, a comprehensive search was conducted across ERIC, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, CINAHL, and Google Scholar for studies published between 2015 and 2025. Fifty empirical studies employing quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods designs were included in the thematic synthesis. The findings indicate that ESP programs are effective in improving nursing students’ oral communication competence, professional vocabulary use, confidence, and preparedness for clinical practice. Learner-centered and practice-oriented pedagogical approaches, including task-based learning, simulation, role-play, project-based instruction, and technology-enhanced learning, were consistently associated with stronger communicative outcomes. The review also highlights the importance of systematic needs analysis in aligning ESP curricula.
As a word formation process, compounding is essential to poetry because it enriches the poetic language, making it more compressed, concise, metaphorically dense, and effective. The article aims to investigate the morphosyntactic and metaphorical aspects of the compound words employed by the American poet Walt Whitman in his renowned poem Song of Myself. Whitman’s way of compounding words is a distinctive stylistic feature that sets his poetry apart from the work of other American poets. He created compound words that are unconventional and innovative. A Constructional Morphology (CM) approach has been employed to analyze the data. The Blending Theory of Metaphor (BTM) was also highly utilized in interpreting any metaphor encoded in the compound words. The data were solely collected from Song of Myself. A total of 627 compounds were identified and statistically analyzed, while 10 compounds were randomly selected and qualitatively analyzed. Whitman’s creation of compound words is driven by his intention to shed light on certain unique themes that are closely connected to his beliefs, visions, poetic identity, and outlook. This reveals a close connection between Whitman’s poetics and the morphosyntactic and metaphorical aspects of his compounds. The article concludes that the syntactic pattern adjective + noun is the most frequent type of compounds used in the poem. It also recommends future studies that further explore other morphosyntactic aspects in Whitman’s poetry such as neologisms and borrowings.
