The multimodal turn in second language (L2) writing has fundamentally reshaped how writing and writing instruction are conceptualized in increasingly digitalized environments. This coda synthesizes the conceptual and empirical contributions of the special issue, arguing that they collectively signal the emergence of a new ecology of multimodal L2 writing and L2 learning. It discusses the papers in two complementary sections. The first examines how the special issue reframes the ecology of L2 writing by positioning digital multimodal composing as an integral component of contemporary L2 writing and language learning. The second highlights how the ecology is expanded through the integration of multimodal feedback, assessment, and generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), emphasizing their interconnected roles in supporting multimodal meaning-making and language development. Building on these contributions, the coda identifies several priorities for the next generation of research, with particular attention to sustainable curricular innovation that embeds multimodal composing and multimodal feedback into language education rather than treating them as isolated instructional practices. It argues that the long-term impact of multimodal research will depend not only on technological innovation but also on the development of coherent pedagogical frameworks, valid assessment practices, and teacher expertise capable of supporting multimodal learning in diverse instructional contexts.
This paper extends the inquiry into the language learning affordances of multimodal composing through a critical examination of past theoretical and empirical developments in the domain. It starts with an overview of a controversy related to theoretical positions on the language learning potential of multimodal writing. This is followed by a research synthesis of the theoretical frameworks, aims, methods, and findings of the relevant empirical research. It is concluded that research insights robustly support the centrality of linguistic processing in individual and collaborative multimodal writing conditions, which, in turn, appears to be the result of an intricate interplay of writer-internal and task-related factors. On the basis of this analysis, substantive and methodological directions for future empirical initiatives are proposed, crucially including a greater focus on language learning gains, as opposed to the prevailing emphasis on effects on performance.
Growth mindset has been a hot topic in English as a second or foreign language (L2) research. Despite its popularity, a growth mindset is not always found to benefit L2 learning achievement. A major reason for this complexity has been ascribed to the interference of other variables. The current study focused on the interplay between self-efficacy and growth mindset in impacting L2 (English) learning achievement. Specifically, the study tested three forms of interaction: competition, mediation, and moderation. Participants included 367 second-year students from a Chinese university who were recruited through convenient sampling. The results of structural equation modeling after controlling for variances at the teacher level showed that: (1) self-efficacy played a dominant role in predicting English achievement (confirming competition); (2) self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship between growth mindset and English achievement (disconfirming mediation), and (3) growth mindset amplified the relationship between self-efficacy and English achievement (confirming moderation). Findings from the interaction analyses suggest that growth mindset serves as an amplifier strengthening the association between self-efficacy and English achievement. Therefore, instruction should not only focus on fostering self-efficacy but also on boosting a growth mindset to optimize learning efficiency.
Research suggests that spaced learning, which incorporates intervals between repetitions of material, facilitates second language (L2) learning more than massed learning, where a given item is repeated multiple times without any intervening trials or time. Although prior studies have suggested that spacing enhances the acquisition of explicit knowledge, it remains unclear whether it aids the acquisition of implicit knowledge. The present study replicated Nakata and Elgort's (2021) study to investigate how massing and spacing impact the acquisition of explicit and implicit vocabulary knowledge in L2. In the present study, 69 Japanese students learning (L2) English studied 48 pseudowords using either massed or spaced repetition. A meaning recall test (immediate and delayed) and a delayed meaning-form matching test assessed participants' explicit knowledge. A semantic priming task (immediate and delayed) measured implicit knowledge. Posttest results showed that spaced learning led to better explicit vocabulary acquisition compared to massed learning. For implicit knowledge development, however, (a) neither schedule was effective, and (b) no significant difference was found between the two schedules.
As human communications have grown increasingly digital and multimodal, so too, has scholarly interest in the topic of digital multimodal composing (DMC). Much research to date has explored various aspects of DMC tasks, including their capacity to affect second language (L2) learning processes and outcomes in the classroom. Despite this, two recurring limitations have surfaced across studies, which involve: (1) unclear connections between theory and research designs, and (2) missing justifications as to why a DMC task or activity was used in the study context. The current article opens with a brief overview of DMC literature, followed by a discussion of these limitations. To further explore their pervasiveness, a research synthesis was conducted of DMC studies published since 2023 (K = 42). The findings of this synthesis show that although researchers often mention theory in their introduction and literature review sections, theory is rarely tied to an aspect of the research methods (e.g., instrument design, data analyses). Additionally, less than one-third of the studies reviewed contain explanations as to why a specific DMC task was adopted. Based on these findings, future recommendations are provided with the aim of fostering stronger connections between theory, research, and practice.
This study investigates how second language (L2) writers’ textual features vary across multimodal integrated tasks and how these features relate to raters’ evaluations of performance. Reflecting the growing emphasis on multimodality in language use, our research focused on viewing-to-write tasks that combine auditory, visual, and written input. A total of 133 intermediate to advanced L2 English learners completed two task types: (1) viewing-to-describe, where participants watched a recording explaining and visually depicting a production process before writing a description; and (2) viewing-to-compare-and-contrast, where learners viewed a videocast of two experts discussing a topic, supported by visuals, and then produced a comparative report. Performances were evaluated using a purpose-developed rating scale, and the written texts were analyzed for linguistic features, including accuracy, cohesion, lexical diversity and sophistication, and syntactic and lexical complexity. Results showed that these linguistic indices explained a substantial proportion of variance in performance scores. Although the overall use of linguistic features did not differ significantly between task types, their relative contribution to scores varied. The findings have important implications for using multimodal integrated tasks in task-based language teaching and assessment.
Anxiety and enjoyment, a contrastive pair of emotions that significantly affect second language (L2) learning, have been widely investigated under the framework of complex dynamic systems theory. With the growing popularity of video-mediated interactions (VMIs), the investigation of anxiety and enjoyment in online settings is important but underexplored. This study examines the relationship between anxiety and enjoyment in L2 VMIs, using an idiodynamic approach. Four L2 learners completed video-mediated conversations with native speakers (NSs) in English via an online platform and rated their anxiety and enjoyment separately while reviewing their video recordings. Subsequent interviews were carried out to explore the categories of factors influencing these emotions. The findings revealed that the relationship between anxiety and enjoyment was more than a seesaw pattern, with these two emotions converging and diverging at specific events. Moreover, we found that anxiety and enjoyment were influenced by three categories of factors: individual, interpersonal, and environmental. The triangulation of emotion ratings, stimulated recall interview data, and performance data helped build a richer understanding of emotions in L2 speaking within the VMI context and yielded practical pedagogical implications for enhancing L2 learners’ emotional experiences during L2 oral interactions.
Oral interaction is crucial for second language learning because it provides opportunities to practice the target language and enhance the comprehensibility of both input and output (Long, 1981; Oliver, 2002; Swain, 2005). However, there is a paucity of research that has examined oral interactions among young learners of Chinese as a second language. This study involved 110 students aged 10-12 from five primary schools in Hong Kong. The study analyzed interaction patterns and topic management skills when they performed two types of tasks. Results showed that the most frequently displayed pattern was collaborative, followed by dominant/passive. Regarding the impact of task type, the percentages of collaborative and expert/novice patterns were higher in the required information exchange tasks than in the optional information exchange tasks. In addition, the required information exchange tasks triggered significantly more turns, target language, short-other-extensions, and other-extensions than the optional information exchange tasks. There was an increase in the exhibition of collaborative patterns and a decrease in dominant/passive patterns from Grades 4 to 6. However, there were no significant differences in the measures of topic management skills across the three grades.
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in research on language teacher emotions while relatively fewer studies have focused on language teachers' professional pride. This study aims to develop and validate a scale for language teacher pride (LTP), and it seeks to understand how this critically important emotion may be linked to other central, conceptually related constructs including wellbeing, work engagement, and burnout. Data were collected employing an online questionnaire in which 423 language teachers from 52 countries took part in the study. The results of exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and exploratory structural equation modeling revealed that the newly constructed Language Teacher Pride Scale (LTPS) reflects the multifaceted nature of LTP as a positive emotional experience. We further found that language teachers with a heightened sense of pride in their teaching were more engaged in their work, had higher wellbeing, and were less prone to burnout. We hope that the results of this study will aid future research by informing policy and practice as well as theory building about the role of pride as a potential core construct in positive psychology, which can help us to understand and support teacher flourishing.
Flow has been highly valued by educational researchers and practitioners for its positive effects on learner well-being, learning outcomes, and academic success. While interest in flow within second language (L2) acquisition has grown recently, comprehensive evidence remains limited regarding both its antecedents and its impact on L2 task performance, particularly in writing contexts. Grounded in Egbert's (2003) theoretical model of flow and language acquisition, this study investigated how flow states in L2 writing are shaped by learners' prior writing proficiency and immediate perceptions of task control, and how these factors collectively influence writing task performance. A total of 206 Chinese eighth-graders learning English as a foreign language completed a pre-task L2 writing proficiency test, an argumentative writing task, and post-task scales measuring task flow and task control. Path analysis revealed that perceived task control predicted task performance both directly and indirectly through its influence on task flow. In contrast, L2 writing proficiency predicted task performance directly, without mediation by task flow. These findings largely support Egbert's (2003) model within a task-based L2 writing context. The study suggests pedagogical implications for task design, emphasizing the importance of fostering a sense of control to facilitate flow states and enhance task performance.
Shao et al. (2023) make a number of critical comments on our previous research on foreign language (FL) emotions, but also add debatable claims, present an inaccurate view of existing research and present an instrument, the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire – Second Language Learning (AEQ-L2L), that does not capture the full range of habitual positive and negative emotions in regular FL classrooms by focusing exclusively on learner emotions during exams. We agree with the authors that some early scales had unclear factor structures but claiming that therefore these scales are invalid and unreliable is unjustified. We do not deny that the AEQ can provide a comprehensive measure of emotion, but it does not prioritize the context which is fundamental in research on FL learners’ classroom emotions. Moreover, the AEQ-L2L is too long to be reasonably included in complex studies.
Applications of self-determination theory in second or foreign language (L2) learning have continuously provided crucial implications but remain limited in terms of sample scope and the comprehensiveness of tested models. This is particularly important in a large yet under-researched context such as Saudi Arabia, as it enables a stronger assessment of the external validity of the theory. In this study, data were collected from 815 undergraduate students across 35 universities in the country to examine the relationships among the three basic psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, classroom engagement, and grade point average (GPA) in English as an L2. Results showed that variable levels were moderate. A series of one-way ANOVAs indicated that all study variables were consistent across age, gender, and geographical location. Using set-exploratory structural equation modeling (set-ESEM), we found that the effect of the three basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation on GPA was solely indirect through classroom engagement. Moreover, the influence of classroom engagement on GPA was itself indirectly mediated by intrinsic motivation. Implications for both theory and L2 educational practice are discussed.
Emotional engagement (EE) has emerged as a central factor in sustaining learners' motivation and cultivating environments that promote both academic success and personal well-being. Central to fostering EE is perceived teacher emotional support (PTES), characterized by teacher behaviors such as warmth, empathy, and responsiveness that contribute to a positive and motivating classroom climate. However, the complex and reciprocal relationship between PTES and EE remains insufficiently explored. This study seeks to address this gap through the lens of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST). Utilizing data collected over the course of a semester from 126 fourth-year English as a foreign language (EFL) learners, the study employed cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) to investigate between-person effects and random intercept CLPM (RI-CLPM) to analyze within-person dynamics. The findings revealed a reciprocal relationship: Higher levels of EE enhanced learners' perceptions of teacher support, while greater teacher support contributed to increased EE over time. The results underscore the mutually reinforcing relationship between PTES and EE, illustrating how these dynamics vary both within and between individuals. This research offers practical insights for teachers, advocating for the creation of emotionally supportive classroom environments that enhance learner EE and ultimately contribute to greater success in second language (L2) learning contexts.
The present study examined incidental collocation learning from reading-only, reading-while-listening, reading aloud, and factors that affect learning (i.e., test modality, prior vocabulary knowledge, and type of collocation). One hundred Vietnamese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) with pre-intermediate level of English proficiency were assigned to an experimental group and a control group. During three weeks, the participants in the experimental group read three texts embedded with 20 target verb-noun and adjective-noun collocations in three different reading modes in a counterbalanced fashion: reading-only, reading-while-listening, and reading aloud. Learning gains were measured at form recall level in a pretest and a delayed posttest using both written and oral test items that were also counterbalanced. The findings revealed that reading mode had a significant effect on incidental collocation learning. Both reading-while-listening and reading aloud led to more learning gains than reading-only. Test modality did not have a significant effect on the results. In addition, learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge significantly predicted the learning gains.
Metacognitive knowledge significantly influences English vocabulary knowledge. However, few longitudinal studies have explored the reciprocal growth trajectories of metacognitive knowledge and English vocabulary knowledge over time. The present study explores how young primary school learners develop their metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge from Grade 3 to Grade 6. The longitudinal sample included 361 Grade 3 (third-year primary school) students (M = 9.60 years, SD = 0.85). The participants completed tests of metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge on four occasions. The metacognitive knowledge test focused on students' cognitive activities, whereas the vocabulary knowledge test focused on learners' breadth of vocabulary knowledge. Cross-lagged panel analysis was employed to explore the reciprocal effects of metacognitive knowledge and the breadth of vocabulary knowledge. The results supported the role of metacognitive knowledge in developing the breadth of vocabulary knowledge, and vice versa. Implications for young learners' longitudinal development of metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge are discussed.
This introduction outlines the theoretical and methodological developments that have shaped research on foreign language anxiety since Scovel’s (1978) foundational review. Building on MacIntyre’s (2017) synthesis of the confounding, specialized, and dynamic phases, we argue that the field has entered a new contextual phase characterized by increasingly narrow, context-specific research questions and more sophisticated analytic approaches. We summarize eight contributions included in this special issue, which collectively span person-centered, cross-cultural, physiological, dynamic, and task-specific examinations of language anxiety. These studies expand the nomological network of language anxiety by incorporating constructs such as shame, guilt, and imposter phenomenon; revisit debates surrounding the directionality of the anxiety-proficiency relationship; and employ innovative methodologies including latent profile analysis, Bayesian modelling, heart-rate variability, and experience sampling. Together, they demonstrate how language anxiety is best understood as a contextually grounded and dynamic construct.
High stress predicts mood and anxiety disorders and can necessitate clinical intervention (Steffen et al., 2014). Language learners often experience high stress during intensive study abroad (SA) programs (Dewey et al., 2018), which can hinder communication (Buttaro, 2004; Peck, 1974). Acculturative stress is common among second language (L2) speakers and can coincide with stress related to theinability to communicate one’s thoughts and ideas (Savicki, 2010), further complicating communication. Therefore, reducing stress in immersive settings can be crucial due to the link between stress, L2 use, and psychological well-being (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2021). We report an exploratory investigation of the relationship between heart rate variability – a physiological measure of adaptation and positive functioning in stressful conditions – and personality and how these relate to the linguistic development of 21 students studying L2 Arabic intensively for 13 weeks, including heart rate variability (HRV), personality assessments, and language proficiency. Thisresearch demonstrates a key link: Personality traits predicted HRV, and HRV predicted Arabic language acquisition and its progression during SA. These findings highlight the potential of using HRV data, alongside other metrics, to improve L2 learners’ SA experience by addressing the influence of anxiety and emotions.
To gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA), researchers have leveraged various quantitative and qualitative methods. Considering the quantitative methods, researchers have mostly relied on variable-centered approaches to examine the relationships between FLA and other variables. However, less attention has been given to person-centered approaches, which aim to identify subgroups of a population to better understand individual differences and heterogeneity. This study applies latent profile analysis (LPA), a robust person-centered method, to uncover FLA profiles and to examine the predictors and outcomes of FLA profiles. To this aim, we first reviewed person-centered methods, addressing best practices and methodological considerations for conducting LPA. For the empirical study, we gathered data from 384 tertiary-level EFL learners using a questionnaire, which measured their FLA, achievement goals, and willingness to communicate. The LPA results revealed five distinct latent profiles of FLA, characterized not only by the intensity of anxiety but also its manifestations and triggers. Each profile also showed meaningful differences in achievement goals and willingness to communicate. By applying LPA, we could gain a deeper understanding of how FLA is experienced across different learner subgroups. We believe person-centered approaches, such as LPA, provide additional value to investigate anxiety and other emotions in language education research.
While students often experience fluctuations in their positive and negative L2 emotions during online classes, there is a dearth of research on these emotional changes. This study fills this gap by exploring the dynamic nature of enjoyment and anxiety in an online English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom using an idiodynamic method. Seven Chinese EFL university students participated in a series of four online class sessions, each lasting 20 minutes. Following each session, they reviewed video recordings of their performance and rated their enjoyment and anxiety on a minute-by-minute basis. Stimulated recalls, interviews, and field notes identified factors influencing these emotional fluctuations. Results show that, in some cases, both emotions operated in a seesaw relationship, with one rising and the other falling, while in others they operated independently. A closer look reveals that the relationship between these emotions was complex and dynamic, shaped by both internal (e.g., personality) and external (e.g., task difficulty) factors. The findings also show that while EFL students initially experienced emotional turbulence at the beginning of online classes, effective emotional, pedagogical, and technological support from teach-ers helped learners maintain optimal emotional states over time.
