Proper functioning of a healthcare system is one of the determinants of life expectancy and health status. Patient satisfaction is an important, independent and complex indicator of healthcare quality. The aim of the study was to describe healthcare utilization including characteristics of Polish outpatient care users aged 50+ and to assess the satisfaction with care received during the most recent visit, both overall and by gender, age and place of residence. The cross-sectional study was carried out in 2024 among 2006 randomly selected, community-dwelling adults in Poland. The study sample included 1203 participants who needed care in the 12 months prior to the interview, including 605 outpatient healthcare users who assessed satisfaction with received care. In our study outpatient care users were more likely to be men, people aged over 70 years and those with multiple chronic conditions compared with people who didn’t use this type of care. Most of the outpatient care users were satisfied with received care (82.2%). Urban residents were less satisfied than rural residents with both the care they received during outpatient visit (79.9% vs 85.6%) and functioning of the healthcare system in Poland (42.2% vs 49.4%). No significant differences were found between age and gender groups. The study showed a high level of satisfaction with outpatient medical care, despite less than half of outpatient users were satisfied with general Polish healthcare system. No age- or gender-disparities were observed in the assessment of the quality of outpatient care among this group of healthcare users.
Introduction. Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are global alternatives to tobacco, particularly popular among adolescents. Although they are marketed as a smoking cessation aid, their long-term impact on the oral cavity remains unclear. This review synthesizes current knowledge regarding the impact of ENDS on oral microbiota composition and periodontal disease risk. Methods. The literature search covering 2015–2025 was conducted using terms: e-cigarettes, oral microbiome, periodontal disease and aerosol toxicity. Eligible peer-reviewed studies addressed aerosol properties, microbial shifts, periodontal outcomes or pathogenic mechanisms. Brief description of the state of knowledge: ENDS aerosols containing nicotine and humectants (PG/VG) decompose into toxic carbonyls and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Vaping induces xerostomia, oxidative stress, and pH alterations, triggering rapid microbial dysbiosis. In this state, bacteria utilize PG/VG as a carbon substrate, favoring anaerobic taxa. Aerosols inhibit beneficial commensals while enhancing the virulence and biofilm formation of S. mutans and S. aureus. Host immune defenses are compromised through reduced cytokine secretion, leading to impaired bacterial clearance and greater probing depths. Conclusions. The use of E-cigarette disrupts oral homeostasis, promoting pathogenic biofilms and chronic infl ammation. This unique dysbiotic state, coupled with DNA damage, significantly elevates the risk of aggressive periodontal disease and potential oral malignancy. However, marked methodological and product heterogeneity underscores the urgent need for well-controlled, longitudinal human clinical investigations.
Introduction. Hospital Emergency Departments provide 24-hour care and their workload reflects clinical, organisational, epidemiological and environmental factors. The COVID-19 pandemic changed emergency care use, while air pollution may contribute to acute health events. Aim. The study aimed to assess changes in Emergency Department hospitalisations in Poznań before, during and after COVID-19, considering selected air pollutants. Material and methods. Monthly data from 2018-2025 on Emergency Department hospitalisations in Poznań and mean concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, CO and NO2 were analysed. Hospitalisation data came from the National Health Fund and environmental data from the Chief Inspectorate for Environmental Protection. The following four periods were compared: 2018-2019, 2020-2021, 2022-2023 and 2024-2025. Kruskal-Wallis, post-hoc and Spearman tests were used. Results. The number of hospitalisations differed significantly between periods (p < 0.001). Median monthly values decreased from 8,233.5 in 2018-2019 to 6,626.5 in 2020-2021, then increased to 10,732 in 2022-2023 and 21,312.5 in 2024-2025. Differences were significant for PM10, CO and NO2, but not PM2.5. PM10, CO and NO2 generally decreased. In 2018-2019, all pollutants correlated negatively with hospitalisations, while in 2022-2025, this persisted only for NO2. The environmental component was exploratory, not causal. Conclusions. The rise observed between 2024-2025 cannot be explained solely by changes in the analysed pollutants. Nega tive correlations probably reflect confounding factors, including post-pandemic organisational and epidemiological changes. Further analyses using daily pollution data and focusing on selected cardiovascular and respiratory diseases are needed.
Overweight and obesity pose a serious public health challenge around the world. Many dietary plans available online do not comply with dietary recommendations and are nutritionally unbalanced. The aim of this study was to assess women’s knowledge about the safe use of alternative weight loss diets, as well as to evaluate the results of using alternative diets in the studied population and their impact on health and well-being. The study was conducted between October 2023 and June 2024. The inclusion criteria were: female gender, age of 19-65 years, and adherence to alternative diets, including weight loss diets. The research method was a survey questionnaire on, among other things, frequency of consumption of different food groups, eating habits, adherence to alternative weight-loss diets, type of diet, motivation to lose weight, dietary goals, duration of the diet, results, potential side effects, and the participants’ general health and well-being. A total of 393 women participated in the survey. Nearly half of the participants were unfamiliar with the term “alternative diet”, and more than 40% of the surveyed women were unable to give an example of an alternative diet. The respondents were most familiar with the vegetarian diet, the Dukan diet, and the blood type diet. The largest group of participants (38.9%) were not familiar with the health risks and/or health benefits associated with unconventional diets, whereas more than 25% of the women were of the opinion that alternative diets can provide health benefits. In a group of women following alternative weight loss diets only less than a third of the studied population strictly adhered to a restrictive diet; 33% of the respondents modified their meals, and 1/5 of the women snacked between meals. Long-term use of alternative diets may cause negative side effects, such as deterioration in well-being, digestive problems and mood swings.
Introduction and aim. Current challenges related to the concept of coordinated care ,chiefl y concern the measurement, monitoring, and improvement of internal processes in order to ensure the sustainability of health outcomes and equity in access to healthcare .Primary healthcare constitutes a crucial area of coordination. The aim of this study was to analyze the theoretical determinants of care measurement within a coordination model in the outpatient care setting. Methods of review. The article has a research-reflective character and constitutes a synthesis of deliberations on the essence of indicator-based measurement of care in the healthcare system. The search process used combinations of keywords in Polish and English, such as: health care quality, quality indicators, quality measurement and quality measurement in health care. Brief summary of current knowledge. Current challenges related to the concept of coordinated care chiefly concern the measurement, monitoring, and improvement of internal processes in order to ensure the sustainability of health outcomes and equity in access to healthcare. In the coming years, coordinated care in primary healthcare may ultimately encompass all patients in Poland. Summary. The philosophy underlying the promotion of care measurement is to raise the standard of healthcare by providing a set of quality criteria and metrics that can be used to evaluate primary healthcare facilities and, ultimately, the entire healthcare system.
Introduction. Hospital-acquired infections are a significant public health problem, increasing patient morbidity and mortality, and generating considerable costs for healthcare systems. The scale of the phenomenon varies regionally and depends on the quality of epidemiological surveillance and the implementation of preventive measures. Aim. To present the current epidemiological and economic consequences of hospital-acquired infections in terms of public health based on a review of the literature. Methods of review. A structured, non-systematic review of the literature was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Publications in English from January 2020 to June 2025 were included. The selection of sources included original and review articles, as well as reports from international institutions. Current knowledge. Available data show substantial regional variation in the incidence of hospital-acquired infections, partly due to differences in surveillance systems. In the European Union, infections affect about 5-7% of hospitalised patients, compared with 5-10% in Poland and approximately 3.2% in the United States. These infections generate considerable direct and indirect costs, estimated at USD 28.4-45 billion annually in the US and around 800 million PLN per year in Poland. Evidence indicates that prevention strategies can reduce infection rates by 30-50%, yielding significant economic benefits. Summary. Hospital-acquired infections remain a significant epidemiological and economic burden, and reducing them requires strengthening surveillance, standardising procedures, and investing in effective, evidence-based preventive interventions.
Introduction. Hand hygiene is a key indicator of quality and safety in long-term care facilities. This study aimed to assess compliance with hand hygiene practices in a nursing care home for older adults in 2025. Methods. An observational audit was conducted from 1 July to 27 August 2025 across six departments of the care home, following the World Health Organization (WHO) “Five Moments for Hand Hygiene” methodology. Observations were performed openly, and healthcare personnel were aware that hand hygiene monitoring was taking place. The minimum required number of 424 hand hygiene opportunities was defi ned according to institutional standards issued by the Ministry of Health. The target number was not based on a statistical power calculation but followed predefi ned quality assurance requirements. Results. Overall hand hygiene compliance was 84.76%, with the highest adherence among physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and social workers (100%), followed by healthcare professionals with compliance above 80%, and the lowest among cleaning staff (68.75%). A total of 433 hand hygiene opportunities were observed. Overall compliance ratio was 367 out of 433 (84.76%), with a 95% Wilson confi dence interval of 81.07% to 87.84%. Discussion. The results indicate good overall compliance with hand hygiene practices, although improvements are possible regarding disinfectant accessibility and the regularity of monitoring. These fi ndings may inform quality improvement efforts aimed at strengthening resident safety and care quality.
Introduction. Migration of medical personnel is a global phenomenon intensified by workforce shortages and posing major challenges for health policy. Analysing this issue is essential for developing effective, evidence-based retention strategies to mitigate escalating workforce shortages and ensure the stability of the national healthcare system. Aim. This study aimed to identify factors influencing migration decisions among Polish healthcare workers. Materials and methods. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted between February and May 2025 among 112 medical professionals. Statistical analysis employed the χ² test and the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test (α = 0.05). Results. Low remuneration (61.6%), difficult working conditions and limited professional development were the main push factors. Higher salaries, better working conditions, and improved quality of life were the main pull factors. Poorer evaluations of working conditions were significantly associated with migration intentions (p = 0.0174). Younger age (under 34 years; p = 0.0137) and shorter professional experience (≤5 years; p = 0.0078) increased the likelihood of considering emigration. Unexpectedly, overtime work was associated with a lower willingness to emigrate (p < 0.0001), while higher perceived professional prestige had a protective effect (p = 0.0381). Conclusions. Migration decisions among Polish healthcare workers are driven primarily by economic and organizational factors. Effective retention requires integrated strategies combining wage improvements with better working conditions and initiatives enhancing the prestige of medical professions.
Introduction and aim. Voice disorders and laryngeal diseases impair communication, quality of life and work ability. Persistent dysphonia may also indicate glottic or laryngeal cancer. This systematic review evaluates artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted acoustic voice analysis as a non-invasive tool for screening support, triage and risk stratification of laryngeal diseases and voice disorders. Methods. The review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement. PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore and Google Scholar were searched using predefined Boolean strategies. The search identified 412 records; after removal of 118 duplicates, 294 titles and abstracts were screened. Eighty-two full texts were assessed, and 30 publications were included in qualitative synthesis. Meta-analysis was not performed because of heterogeneity in target conditions, voice tasks, acoustic features, artificial intelligence (AI) models and outcome metrics. Brief summary of current knowledge. AI-assisted acoustic voice analysis shows high performance in binary classification of healthy and pathological voice, especially using mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs), perturbation measures, harmonicto-noise ratio (HNR) and spectrogram-based features. However, multiclass classification and differentiation between benign and malignant laryngeal disease remain challenging. Multimodal models using voice, demographic and clinical data appear more promising than voice-only approaches. Summary. AI-assisted acoustic voice analysis may support scalable screening, triage and telemonitoring, particularly where specialist laryngological care is limited. Implementation requires standardized recordings, external validation, explainable models, safety-netting and prospective clinical studies.
Introduction and aim. Achromatopsia is a rare congenital retinal disorder that affects children’s visual functioning and may impose psychological burdens on their families. Evidence on the quality of life among caregivers of children with achromatopsia remains limited. The study aimed to assess the quality of life among parents and caregivers of children with achromatopsia and to examine selected sociodemographic factors associated with it. Methods and materials. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted in November 2023 among 62 parents or legal guardians of children with achromatopsia. Data were collected using a sociodemographic questionnaire and the WHOQOL-BREF. Due to the exploratory character of the study and the small sample size, bivariate analyses were performed using the Mann–Whitney U test. Results. The scores on the WHOQOL-BREF exceeded 60 points in all domains. The highest mean score was observed in the psychological domain, followed by the social, environmental and physical domains. No statistically significant differences were found according to caregivers’ gender or professional activity. Caregivers aged 40 years and older, as well as those with higher education, reported higher environmental-domain scores. Conclusions. Caregivers of children with achromatopsia reported moderate-to-good quality of life, while environmental resources emerged as a potential area of inequality. Younger caregivers and those with lower educational attainment may require particular attention. Public health strategies should include accessible disease-specific information, counselling, referral pathways to visual rehabilitation services and family-centred support.
Aim. Patient rights are a set of rights granted to healthcare recipients. They include objective standards which inform patients about what they can expect from public authorities and institutions directly providing healthcare services. The main objective of the study was to assess the knowledge of physicians employed in public healthcare facilities about patient rights. Material and methods. The study was conducted in the period between October 2022 and March 2023. The diagnostic survey method was employed, using a self-developed questionnaire. One hundred respondents employed in hospitals and primary health-care facilities took part in the study. Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Office) was used to compile the data. The statistical analysis was conducted with the use of the Statistica 13.1 PL statistical software. Results. 61% of physicians reported their knowledge of patient rights to be satisfactory, while 39% found it unsatisfactory. 33% of respondents were familiarized with patient rights in the course of their higher education, while 67% learned about them only in the workplace. Meanwhile, 51% of respondents were familiar with the Patient Rights and the Patient Rights Ombudsman Act. 79% indicated that they complied with patient rights in their professional practice, while 33% of respondents confirmed that they had witnessed violations of patient rights in their workplace. Conclusions. Based on research, it can be concluded that there is a need to develop and implement a training program for medical personnel on patients’ rights. Doctors’ lack of knowledge about patients’ rights influences the exercise or violation of these rights.
Introduction and Aim. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly integrated into healthcare systems, yet its implementation in primary care remains uneven and context-dependent. Poland’s evolving digital health infrastructure creates favourable conditions for AI adoption in primary care (POZ), but real-world implementation remains limited. This review aims to synthesise recent international evidence with a specifi c focus on the Polish primary healthcare system. Current knowledge. AI applications in primary care include clinical decision support systems, predictive analytics, documentation automation, and patient self-management tools. Despite high performance in controlled settings, real-world effectiveness is constrained by workflow integration, data quality and organisational readiness. Summary. This review synthesises the current international evidence on artificial intelligence in primary care in relation to the Polish primary healthcare system, with an emphasis on implementation determinants such as interoperability, governance, clinician training and regulatory alignment. By relating global findings to the Polish healthcare system, it complements existing systematic reviews by providing a contextual synthesis focused on implementation conditions and system-level integration.
Secondary caries remain a leading cause of restoration failure and replacement in contemporary dental practice. The aim of this paper is to review current clinical criteria guiding the decision-making process between repair and replacement of composite restorations affected by secondary caries. Additionally, the paper assesses the effectiveness of surface conditioning techniques and prepares a repair protocol for recurrent caries. The electronic database search was carried out using PubMed and Google scholar databases with the keywords: “secondary caries”, “repair”, “replacement”, “surface conditioning”, “minimally invasive dentistry”. The reference lists of selected articles were manually searched for appropriate studies. The literature search included publications from 01/01/2015 to 15/05/2025 and was limited to English language. Studies show that it is preferable to perform a repair rather than a replacement whenever possible. Surface conditioning techniques like bur roughening, air abrasion, acid etching, and the use of salinizing and adhesive agents can enhance the success of the repair method. However, evidence on how effective these methods are is less certain. When deciding between repair and replacement, clinicians should consider restoration material properties, patients caries risk, their personal experience, and the decay advancement. The currently obeyed rules of minimally invasive dentistry favour the decision of repair. Many methods of increasing the effectiveness of a restoration repair have been introduced. This study presents an exemplar repair protocol using air abrasion.
Introduction. Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) have an impact on health and disease. We are exposed to EDCs from the earliest years of life, from children’s products, personal care products, food containers, pesticides, and herbicides. These chemicals often bind to endogenous receptors (e.g., estrogen receptor, steroid receptor) and disrupt normal brain function, reproductive organs, development, immune system, and many other organs. Recent studies indicate a potential link between exposure to EDCs and male infertility. In this review we also provide practical public health implications, prevention strategies and policy recommendations aligned with the WHO and the EU frameworks for reducing EDCs exposure. Aim. This review aims to explore the relationship between exposure to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, we can find in items used on a daily basis and male reproductive health focusing on mechanisms of action, exposure timing and substance specific consequences. Materials and methods. A narrative review of 62 articles retrieved from PubMed and open access sources (published up to May 2025) was conducted. The included literature covered molecular mechanism, function of Leydig and Sertoli cells, testosterone synthesis, semen analysis. Emphasis was placed on studies investigating adolescent and adult populations as well as animal models. Conclusions. EDCs interfere with hormonal homeostasis and spermatogenesis through numerous often very subtle mechanisms. Alarming is high sensitivity of the male reproductive system during prenatal development and puberty, while even lowdose exposures can lead to lasting or even transgenerational effects.
Introduction and aim. Creatine monohydrate is one of the most extensively studied and widely used nutritional supplements, primarily recognized for its role in the improvement of skeletal muscle energetics and physical performance. However, mounting amount of evidence now supports its broader physiological impact beyond exercise, particularly in domains such as neuromuscular aging, cognitive function, and post-viral fatigue syndromes. The purpose of this narrative review is to comprehensively evaluate the effects of creatine supplementation across various domains of human health, including sports performance, cognitive function, aging-related outcomes, and post-viral fatigue syndromes such as long COVID. Particular attention is given to the impact of creatine on muscle strength, power output, recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage, neuroprotective mechanisms, and quality of life in different populations. By synthesis of findings from randomised controlled trials and recent clinical studies, this review seeks to clarify both the efficacy and safety profile of creatine, as well as its potential role as an adjunctive therapeutic strategy beyond traditional athletic contexts. Description of the state of knowledge. Creatine augments intramuscular phosphocreatine stores, thereby optimising ATP resynthesis during high-intensity exercise and promoting anabolic adaptations. Neuroprotective mechanisms involve mitochondrial stabilisation, antioxidant activity, and modulation of neurotransmitter systems. These effects are mediated by systemic and cellular alterations in energy metabolism, hormone profiles, and inflammatory pathways. Material and methods. This review was conducted following a narrative approach. Scientific publications were identified through a structured search of electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, focusing on studies published between 2000 and 2025. Search terms included “creatine supplementation”, “exercise performance”, “cognition”, “aging”, “long COVID”, “muscle recovery”, and related keywords. Only peer-reviewed articles written in the English language were considered. The selection included randomised controlled trials, meta-analyses, and clinically relevant pilot studies. Additionally, to provide a comprehensive context for creatine use, related review articles, official regulatory documents, market reports, and position statements from authoritative organisations were also included. Conclusions. Clinical trials demonstrate significant improvements in muscular performance parameters, cognitive processing speed, depressive symptomatology, and markers of muscle damage andregenerative capacity. . The collective evidence supports creatine as a pleiotropic agent with potential applications extending beyond traditional sports nutrition into therapeutic domains addressing neurodegeneration, mood disorders, and post-viral fatigue syndromes. Given its broad applicability and favorable safety profile, creatine may hold value as a low-cost, scalable intervention in public health strategies aimed at promoting healthy aging, physical resilience, and cognitive well-being.
Introduction. The growing prevalence of screen time in modern societies has significantly increased exposure to blue light,especially from smartphones and computers. While blue light is crucial for circadian rhythm regulation and mood enhancement during the day, its excessive evening exposure may negatively impact sleep quality and emotional stability. Recent studies have pointed toward its potential link with the development of depressive symptoms. Aim. This review aims to explore the relationship between exposure to blue light particularly from screen-based devices and the development or exacerbation of depressive symptoms, with a focus on biological mechanisms, epidemiological data, and the therapeutic potential of light in mood disorders. Material and methods. A narrative review of 113 articles retrieved from PubMed and open-access sources (published up to May 2025) was conducted. The included literature covered neurobiological mechanisms (e.g., melanopsin, ipRGCs), circadian rhythm alterations, clinical trials on light therapy, and epidemiological studies linking screen time with depression. Emphasis was placed on studies investigating adolescent and adult populations, blue light wavelength sensitivity, and melatonin suppression. Conclusions. Blue light influences human physiology through melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells, affecting melatonin secretion and circadian rhythms. While daytime exposure supports mood and cognitive performance, evening exposure is associated with sleep disturbances and an increased risk of depressive symptoms. Bright light therapy shows promising efficacy in treating seasonal affective disorder and may support mood regulation in broader populations.
In the era of rapid development of mobile health technologies, tools supporting mental health have become an integral part of modern health promotion among adolescents. In Poland, there is a growing interest in and use of solutions that offer access to personalised training programs, mood monitoring, and real-time psychological support. This article provides a comprehensive review of the latest trends and technological solutions with the potential to improve mental health and to increase physical activity among young people. A narrative literature review methodology was applied. Publications from 2015 to 2025 in Polish and English, related to the use of mobile health technologies in promoting mental health and physical activity among adolescents, were included. The review indicates a dynamic development of artificial intelligence and machine learning enabling the creation of increasingly advanced and individualized health solutions foradolescents.. The analysis highlights various challenges faced by users and developers of applications,from the need to tailor interventions to individual needs and motivation levels, through digital fatigue limiting engagement, to concerns regarding privacy and data security. Integration of mobile applications with healthcare systems opens new possibilities for health monitoring and early intervention. Further research on the effectiveness of these tools is recommended, along with the necessity to strengthen digital competencies of adolescents and their families through educational programs.
Aim. The purpose of the study was to determine the degree of satisfaction of women giving birth in hospitals in Poland with the quality of perinatal care. Factors such as choice of hospital, possibility of obtaining an epidural, participation of people accompanying women during labor and others were taken into account. The study examined how complications and procedures (such as perineal incision) affected women’s satisfaction with perinatal care. Material and methods. The survey was conducted online among patients giving birth in facilities across Poland, both public and private. Participation in the survey was offered to a random sample of 309 women who gave birth between 2014 and 2024. A self-administered questionnaire, consisting of closed and open-ended questions, was used for evaluation. Results. The perinatal care was rated positively by 70.8% of the women surveyed. Among the Polish women surveyed, only 8.3% rated the level of care as bad and 2.1% as very poor . Most respondents gave birth in public hospitals, and only a small percentage in private hospitals (3.2%), so the conclusions drawn in this study apply mainly to public facilities. Conclusions. The most significant factors in assessing the satisfaction of mothers with the standard of care were the attitude of medical personnel toward patients and the lack of availability of epidural anaesthesia for labor. The quality of perinatal care in Polish hospitals seems satisfactory for most patients, but some issues still need improvement. Care of the pregnant woman should be multilevel and include both physical and psychological aspects, for the overall well-being of mother and child.
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, are an increasing health problem in the pediatric population, with rising incidence globally. Environmental factors are crucial in the etiology and progression of these disorders. A key modifiable risk factor is exposure to tobacco smoke, both active and passive. This study aimed to analyse current knowledge on the impact of passive smoking on the risk and course of IBD in children. The literature review shows that although a direct link between passive smoking and pediatric IBD etiology is not conclusively proven, there is strong evidence suggesting its negative effect on disease activity and prognosis. Prenatal and early childhood exposure, in particular, may influence immune mechanisms and predispose children to disease development and exacerbations. Children with IBD exposed to secondhand smoke have more frequent flare-ups, require more hospitalizations, and often need intensified immunosuppressive treatment. The importance of preventive actions is also emphasised, especially education of parents and caregivers to limit children’s exposure to tobacco smoke. Effective strategies to reduce passive smoking at home and at the legislative level are necessary. A comprehensive interdisciplinary approach covering medical, social, and legal aspects is essential to improve the quality of life among children with IBD and reduce related health and economic burdens. This analysis highlights the need for further research and preventive measures to minimise the harmful impact of passive smoking on the course of IBD in the pediatric population.
Introduction. The increasing interest in the use of bacterial cultures and complex microbial products in medical treatment has become more and more noticeable. Each year, a growing number of such products are introduced to the pharmaceutical market. With the development of methods for isolating and culturing specific bacterial strains, numerous concepts have emerged on the potential benefits of supplementation. We agree that probiotic supplementation yields scientifically proven positive effects in certain medical conditions. However, our attention is drawn to the tendency to expand the use of probiotics to vulnerable populations. This raises important questions concerning the safety, efficacy, and potential risks associated with probiotic use among the most sensitive patient groups. In our work, we focused on reviewing the current scientific literature, and we would like to propose several insights into safe probiotic administration among different groups of patients. Materials and methods. We reviewed the literature from early 2000 to 2025 for articles on the probiotics in different groups of patients. The review of the available literature was conducted by searching official databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar using the following keywords: probiotics, prebiotics, antibiotics, microflora, sepsis, acute diarrhea, preterm infants, SIBO, IBS, acute pancreatitis etc.. We also queried references cited from original research, meta-analyses, and reviews in both Polish and English language, published in scientific journals and articles. Results. Probiotics demonstrate therapeutic benefits in preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea and reducing necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. They may also support treatment of ulcerative colitis, pouchitis, travelers’ diarrhea and acute childhood diarrhea, as well as possibly prevent atopic dermatitis when taken maternally. However, the evidence remains inconclusive for several other conditions, including IBS and Crohn’s disease. Probiotic use remains not recommended in immunocompromised states, such as ICU settings, due to the risk of sepsis. Safety concerns include antibiotic resistance and microbiota disruption, which requires thorough data from high-quality clinical trials, including strain-specific assessments. Finally, the available data suggests that synbiotics may offer enhanced benefits, while postbiotics are emerging as safer alternatives. Conclusions. The available data and existing studies do not provide sufficient grounds to unequivocally support the use of probiotics and related products in clinical treatment. There is a lack of robust evidence based on well-designed clinical trials. Current recommendations regarding the use of probiotics for the management of travelers’ diarrhea and antibiotic-associated diarrhea remain in place, as do contraindications for their use in individuals with sepsis or compromised immune function. However, for other medical conditions, stronger evidence and formal guidelines from scientific societies are still awaited.
