Although from the perspective of modern mainstream Earth science, the Earth is not "growing", in this article, after analyzing some stratum structures, we discovered the fact that the stratum structure has periodic characteristics. Based on the philosophical perspective of analogical reasoning, we compare the periodic stratum structure with tree rings, thereby put forward a new viewpoint. The new viewpoint holds that there is a process of material accumulation on the Earth's surface. The sources of materials are from two aspects. The first is that plants on the Earth absorb sunlight through photosynthesis and convert light energy into substances. These substances gradually deposit, thereby continuously increasing the mass of the Earth. The second is that the Earth receives meteorites and cosmic dust from the universe every day. During its revolution around the Milky Way, the Sun, like the Earth, experiences different "galactic seasons". These "galactic seasons" cause the Earth to deposit materials at different speeds at various times, thus making the stratum structure periodic.
Chen's Plate Tectonics Theory identifies nuclear fission in the Earth's inner core as the sole dynamic source of plate motion; it overturns the concept of continental drift as an erroneous construct and refutes the notion of rigid plates, positing that the so-called rigid plates in conventional theory are in a continuous process of consumption. In doing so, the theory thoroughly upends the traditional framework of plate tectonics. Its core tenets include the following: Periodic bursts of nuclear fission in the Earth's inner core drive volume changes in the mantle via thermal expansion and contraction, thereby triggering expansion-contraction cycles in the crust. The frequency of nuclear fission events in the inner core is transmitted to the crust through the mantle with a time delay, while the fundamental frequency remains unchanged. The mantle acts as a thermal reservoir, mitigating the impact of explosive thermal energy from the inner core on the crust, a process that generates co-frequency thermal waves. The crustal rifting and contraction cycles are nested across multiple frequency bands, with the intermediate-period cycle of 20-200 days identified as the critical cycle driving crustal deformation. Crustal expansion and contraction are localized at pre-existing crustal weak zones: during the thermal expansion phase, failure and rupture are consistently and periodically localized at mid-ocean ridges, while during the cooling contraction phase, stress release is periodically fixed at convergent plate boundaries. This explains the concentration of earthquake events along convergent plate zones. The self-locking structure of rock wedges formed by cooled magma enables irreversible expansion of the crust, with variations in rock wedge thickness determining the spreading rate of mid-ocean ridges. Rock wedge self-locking at mid-ocean ridges governs the long-term directional migration of tectonic plates. The progressive growth of microcracks within plates and the formation of interconnected magma-filled fractures drive reversals in plate motion direction. At the time of its formation, the Earth was not composed of rigid continental plates and oceanic plates, but rather a uniform primitive crust covering the entire globe. This primitive crust was subsequently rifted into multiple plates, and through successive expansion-contraction cycles, the primitive crust has been continuously consumed while new crust is persistently generated. Only planets with an active inner core heat source are geologically "alive" and capable of hosting life.
The paper draws on two different reflective band-ratio algorithms, namely the Maximum Chlorophyll-a Index (MCI) and New Three Band Algorithm (N3B) to estimate Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentrations from Landsat-8 images and spectrometric water samples. Band tuning procedures was performed to find optimal peak wavelengths suitable for the estimation of Chl-a from Landsat-8 satellite image and spectrometric data. Additionally, the MCI and N3B were applied on both in-situ and Landsat-8 data and compared using statistical regression models such as the coefficient of determination (R2), relative mean absolute error (rMAE), and root mean square error (RMSE) to find the best performing algorithm in estimating Chl-a pigments. The results demonstrates that the MCI algorithm performed sensitively in the estimation of Chl-a as compared to the N3B, after data regression. The MCI algorithm obtained a higher R2 of 0.69, with a minimal percentage error (rMAE) of 18.34% and RMSE of 1.85 m-1 when applied on in-situ data. A similar result was obtained when MCI was applied on Landsat-8 data with a higher R2 of 0.75 and a minimal percentage error (rMAE) of 21.29% and an RMSE of 0.97 m-1, respectively. However, the N3B algorithm returned a lower R2 of 0.54 and 0.65 when applied on both in-situ and Landsat-8 data concurrently. The standard errors for MCI were comparatively lower than that of the N3B. Hence, in this study, the MCI algorithm performed better because it has less predictive error. In all, although both algorithms were able to estimate Chl-a pigments, the MCI algorithm is more sensitive in the retrieval of Chl-a concentration from Case-2 inland waters using both in-situ and Landsat-8 data. The results indicate the high potential of analytical algorithms to estimate Chl-a concentration in turbid and eutrophic productive (Case II) waters using satellite data, which will be of immense value to scientists, natural resource managers, and decision makers involved in managing the inland aquatic ecosystems.
This study employed seven machine-learning algorithms: Random Forest, XGBoost, LightGBM, Support Vector Machine (SVM-RBF), Elastic Net, Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), and hybrid PCA-enhanced models to predict the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI-IPCC) of smallholder farmers in Southern Zambia’s Agro-Ecological Region I. Using grouped cross-validation to prevent spatial bias, the PCA-MLP and Random Forest models emerged as top performers, achieving R² values above 0.95 and RMSE below 0.05. These models effectively captured nonlinear socio-ecological interactions that influence vulnerability. Feature importance analyses identified education, income, water access, and drought exposure as key predictors. The integration of dimensionality reduction (PCA) improved model stability and interpretability. These findings demonstrate that hybrid machine-learning approaches outperform traditional LVI aggregation in predicting household vulnerability, providing scalable, data-driven insights for climate adaptation planning. The results highlight the potential of artificial intelligence to revolutionize vulnerability assessments and inform targeted resilience strategies in regions affected by climate change.
Residents in hilly areas often select sites for housing on floodplains, riverbanks, and similar locations, which makes them highly vulnerable to casualties and property damage during flood events. Flood inundation analysis for mountainous rivers can provide critical data for urban flood prevention and disaster mitigation. This study takes the mountainous Gulin River as a case study, employing the hydrological analogy method and the inference formula method to calculate design peak discharges for recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 years. Comparative analysis demonstrated that the hydrological analogy method yields results that are more representative of the design peak discharges across various river segments. Utilizing the derived design flood data and measured DEM data, a hydrodynamic model was developed using HEC-RAS for the Jinlan and Yongle reaches of Gulin River. The model computed key hydraulic parameters, including the inundation elevation and flow velocity under different recurrence intervals. The flood inundation extents were subsequently delineated using ArcGIS. The simulation results indicate that: (1) the study reaches begin to experience bank inundation under the 10-year flood scenario; (2) the maximum inundation depths for Jinlan reach reach 6.74 m, 7.81 m, and 8.92 m for 10-, 20-, and 50-year floods respectively; (3) the Yongle reach exhibits more severe flooding with maximum depths of 9.63 m, 11.45 m, and 16.77 m for the corresponding scenarios. The inundation depth in residential areas ranges from 0 to 2 m, with Xinhe Village and Yongle Town being the most severely affected; and (4) Building upon the one-dimensional model, two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling was conducted for the river bend near Xinhe Village and the river reach near Yongle Town. The results indicate that particular attention should be given to floodplain inundation on the inner side of the bend at Xinhe Village, where flow deceleration may lead to extensive overbank flooding. In Yongle Town, riverside buildings and infrastructure are exposed to significant inundation risks under medium- to high-return period flood events. To mitigate these risks, structural flood protection measures such as levee construction along the riverbanks are recommended.
Landfalling Tropical Cyclones (TCs) may induce tornadoes, while less frequent than their midwestern counterparts, are still able to produce the damage potential leading to additional billion-dollar costs. This research seeks to find some common ingredients for tornadogenesis associated with landfalling TCs impinging on synoptic frontal boundaries, during which the TC’s circulation has been strongly affected on both the vorticity, upward velocity, and other surrounding environmental, convective, and tornadic parameters. This research found that by increasing the vorticity and vertical velocity associated with a cold frontal boundary, moving or stalled, and placing it into a moist convectively primed environment surrounding the TC increases the chance for a tornado outbreak to occur. The most frequent outbreaks occur when a cold frontal boundary has a direct interaction with the circulation of an approaching TC, such as seen in Hurricane Michael (2018) when it was moving through North Carolina (NC) Piedmont into the Virginian Coastal Plains. In this case, the vorticity, surface moisture, vertical velocity, and surface convergence are all observed to have modestly large increases leading to the environment conducive to tornadogenesis. This prefrontal environment also has an area of moderate to large Convectively Available Potential Energy (CAPE) with values over 500 J kg-1 as well as Potential Instability (PI) index with the vertical gradient of potential temperature (∂θ/∂z) becoming negative. Storms interacting with a stalled frontal boundary, such as Hurricane Florence (2018), also have this increase in vorticity though to a lesser extent. During the interaction with Florence vorticity peaked in southeast NC and northeast South Carolina associated with the outer band that was located near the stalled front. This area was in the favorable front right quadrant and experiencing a boost in CAPE from the flow of warm moist air off the Gulf Stream. The main driver of vorticity in this location was mainly due to the vertical vorticity stretching generated by the low-level flow convergence associated with the interaction of the flow around the TC and the stalled front, which occurred over the southern coastal areas of NC. In the case of tornado outbreaks not associated with a frontal boundary, such as Hurricane Allen (1980), the largest driver tends to be the TC itself with Allen strong vorticity advection, abundant moisture, and large CAPE, from the moist and unstable airstream from the Gulf of Mexico, into southern Texas, a region that is typically favorable for tornado development being near the crossroads of Tornado Alley and Dixie Alley (Klemp, 1987), a zone that frequently combines the conditions needed for tornadogenesis with hot dry air from the north and west meeting warm moist air from the south and east.
Water management is a significant issue for Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, due to rapid urbanization, a lack of freshwater sources, and inadequate infrastructure. In order to solve the dual issues of urban flood risks and water scarcity that the city faces due to rapid population growth and restricted freshwater supply, our research explores the implementation of reclaimed water systems in Kathmandu, Nepal. This study collects respondents from 400 residents of Kathmandu using a systematic survey. It investigates their attitudes, preparedness, and concerns about using recovered water for home and municipal purposes. The outcomes indicate a high level of public knowledge, with a significant percentage (about 80%) acknowledging the value of recycled water. Nevertheless, only around one-third of respondents are amenable to home usage of such systems for drinkable purposes, primarily because of worries about the health and safety of the water. The study also finds that the acceptability of reclaimed water consumption positively correlates with higher educational attainment, which is essential information for policymakers concerned with urban sustainability.
Investigating crystal-rich clots hosted in phenocrysts and phenoclasts within Eocene subvolcanic rocks in Torud-Ahmad Abad, south-southeast of Shahrood (northern part of central Iran zone). These crystal-rich clots and clusters (alias stone inclusions, nanogranitoids, microcrystal clots) are interpreted as crystallized melt inclusions (cMIs) within phenocrysts and phenoclasts, highlighting plagioclase-hosted inclusions. Least-altered hypabyssal igneous rocks are trachy-andesitic, basaltic andesitic, and dacitic porphyries. These porphyries have porphyritic, glomeroporphyritic, granular, and trachytic textures with variable-sized phenocrysts of plagioclase (albite-labradorite), green hornblende (magnesio-hastingsite), and clinopyroxene (diopside-augite), with minor biotite, and Fe-Ti oxides; large plagioclase phenocrysts, exhibiting clear normal oscillatory zoning, were consistently utilized as plagioclase-hosted inclusions due to their abundance in rocks. MIs exhibit complete post-entrapment crystallization (PEC), generally with a slightly finer grain size than the igneous groundmass, i.e. no preserved glassy MI were observed in these phenocrysts, only cMIs. These variably sized, cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline clots in various phenocrysts seem to also represent primary igneous assemblages, manifested as clusters of microphenocrysts; these are referred to as crystal clots. SEM-EDS analyses determined the composition of crystal-rich clots in various plagioclase phenocrysts forming inclusions. The major-element composition of these crystal-rich clots in plagioclase are basalt, basaltic andesite, andesite, trachy-andesite, and trachyte that seem to be melt trapped during plagioclase phenocryst growth; these trapped interface melts then form microphenocryst assemblages that are preserved in phenocrysts, which are trapped when some process interferes with the growth of a phenocryst. These cMIs exhibit compositional variations from their bulk host rock, resulting from entrapment during magma mixing during plagioclase growth.
A comprehensive examination using a transmitted light optical microscope was conducted to analyze the morphology and geometric parameters of kink band development in mica from the Colônia impact crater's crystalline basement rocks. Significant differences were observed between kink bands formed perpendicular and parallel to the [001] plane. Kink bands perpendicular to the [001] are narrow and elongated, exhibiting two distinct coplanar orientations with regular spacing and parallel planar fractures, which suggest a slip-dislocation strain mechanism. In contrast, kink bands parallel to the [001] plane exhibit a greater variety of shapes and a more complex internal structure. These kink bands can be grouped into six types: sigmoidal-shape, S-shape, lenticular-shape, Z-shape, Z-shape with internal dislocation, and Z-shape with internal rotation. The deformation patterns in these kink bands indicate two primary processes: flexural and shear strain. The most notable deformations induced by these strain mechanisms include the curvature of cleavage lamellae, delamination cracks, and fractures along the boundaries of kink bands. More severely deformed kink bands exhibit dislocation, rotation, and partial obliteration of internal cleavage lamellae. These characteristics differ from those of typical kink bands in tectonically deformed rocks, thereby reviving the longstanding debate regarding their potential use as alternative evidence in impact cratering investigations.
A recently proposed glacial history paradigm (new paradigm) explains previously ignored Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence by headward erosion of the east-oriented Saline River valley across large and prolonged south-oriented meltwater floods which flowed in complexes of closely-spaced anastomosing channels. The eastward sloping drainage divide extends from the Saline River’s western Kansas headwaters between the Saline River (north) and the Smoky Hill River (south) until in central Kansas the Smoky Hill River turns in a southeast and then north direction to join the Saline River with their combined flow continuing as the Smoky Hill River in an east direction to join the Republican River with the combined flow then becoming the Kansas River. Evidence for closely-spaced south-oriented anastomosing channels consists of previously undescribed low points (divide crossings) which are found along the drainage divide and which link north-oriented Saline River tributaries with south-oriented Smoky Hill River tributaries. Evidence that Saline River valley headward erosion beheaded and reversed south-oriented anastomosing channels also consists of the numerous low points along the drainage divide and of barbed tributaries to the now north-oriented Saline River tributaries which suggest large south-oriented meltwater floods extended much further west than commonly accepted glacial history interpretations permit. The topographic map evidence is consistent with the new paradigm interpretation that a thick continental icesheet by its weight and by deep erosion created and occupied a deep “hole” as massive south-oriented meltwater floods flowed across the rising deep “hole” rim until the deep “hole” rim uplift diverted the floodwaters toward what became the deep “hole’s” only remaining southern outlet (the Mississippi River valley).
An analysis of joint patterns were carried out on multiple exposures in Albian to Turonian strata belonging to the Abakaliki Formation (Asu River Group) and the Eze-Aku Formation (Eze-Aku Group) on the eastern flank of the Abakaliki Anticlinorium of the Southern Benue Trough. The analysis was carried out using FracPaQ a MATLAB based toolbox for quantification of fracture patterns. The tool was used to calculate fracture density, and intensity of the traces; to quantify scaling distributions, and to determine dilation tendencies, slip tendencies, and to quantify connectivity, and fluid flow directions. Analysis show the presence of two major joint systems: A Major Cross-Fold Joint (CF-J) system -orthogonal to the regional fold axes- consisting of the CF-J1 set trending NW/SE (315±5°), and a subordinate Longitudinal Joint System (L-J) -subparallel to the fold axes- consisting of a NE-SW L-j1 set, an ENE-WSW (60°±5°) L-j2 set, and an E-W trending L-j3 set. Fracture patterns show intensity and density ranging from 11.2395- 53.3443 m-1 and 85.2747- 629.5928 m-2 respectively. Joints in the NE-SW show high dilation and low slip tendencies given a NW-SE directed maximum principal horizontal stress σH stress field. The units of the Abakaliki Formation show better connectivity and lower permeability anisotropy as both fracture systems are well developed in those units. These joints, having formed in the period leading up to the Santonian inversion would have been ideal conduits for migration and flow of hydrocarbon and mineral fluids. The Cross-Fold System precedes the folding episode in the Santonian period and is likely a result of overpressure conditions due to disequilibrium compaction in the Albian- Turonian strata in an initial compressive regional tectonic stress field. The Longitudinal System formed later and is related to the outer-arc flexure of the folded units taking advantage of the nascent cleavage structures in the folded shale units.
World climate continues to deteriorate at varying rates in spite of different anthropogenic mitigative and adaptive interventions. Conversely, the gravitational force fields of the sun and moon hold Earth in orbit, amongst others. Herein, we explore the impacts of changes in these gravitational fields on global climate and examine their influences on natural events, such as ocean tides, volcanoes, geomagnetic storms and movement of tectonic plates. Beyond reports on greenhouse effect and mass transport, we discuss the influence of gravity on tidal bulges, melting glaciers, condensable atmosphere and other events, such as El Niño and La Niña, and correlate their typically subtle impacts on climate worldwide with variations in Earth’s gravity. The intention is to highlight other causative factors implicated in climatic change without diminishing the contributions of greenhouse gasses and other factors, which are currently regarded, by specialists and lay-public alike, as the major culprits of climate change. We submit that the shifts in Earth’s gravitational fields to sustain equilibrium and remain in orbit can manifest as perturbations of atmospheric temperatures, pressures and air concentrations as well as volume changes and ion effects; in hydrological bodies, and are some of the non-anthropogenic agents driving changes in global climate. We surmise, therefore, that the influence of changes in gravity, albeit subtle, on climate change is significant. It is envisaged that highlighting these subtle agents of change would intensify efforts toward ameliorating and/or eliminating drastic and deleterious changes in climate as well as at embracing adaptive measures at local and international levels.
Located in the south-west part of the Fettekro greenstone belt, Agbaou gold deposit is marked by three major lithological units: (i) a volcano-plutonic unit composed of basaltic to andesitic lavas, amphibolites, chlorite-schists and sills of microdiorite and microgabbro; (ii) a volcano-sedimentary unit containing pyroclastic lavas (basaltic and dacitic) and sediments (shale and grauwacke); (iii) the late felsic dikes (rhyolite and rhyodacite) probably contemporary with the formation of granitoids form the third unit. These host rocks are mostly intensely deformed and altered. Alteration phenomena were revealed by the high values in fire loss, the decreasing of silica contents, the sometimes high values of alkaline for rocks also basic, the constant depletion in LREE and LILE. The Eu and Nb negative anomalies reveal a crustal contamination of magmatic series. Basaltic lavas are volcanic arc tholeiites nearing N-MORB type; they are associated to a magmatogenesis of ocean floor. Their magmatic source would probably be spinel lherzolitic type. Andesites have a calc-alkaline composition and seem far link to active subduction margin. Geodynamics context would be that of an area where transcurrent faults of lithospheric extension generate heat corridors able of generating by fusion the andesitic calc-alkaline magma. This context would probably be the one that prevailed during the establishment of the gold mineralization. Pyroclastic rocks of dacitic composition as acid lavas (rhyolite and rhyodacite) have also evolved in this same geotectonic context. Plutonic rocks are located in arc-volcanic granites field, while metasediment are linked to active continental margin field.
In this study, the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model was adopted to investigate the mechanical and thermal forcing effects associated with the New Guinea Highland (NGH) on Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) propagation and rainfall formation and enhancement mechanisms over the island of New Guinea. Our results show that both forces affect the propagation of the MJO07-08, resulting in orographic rainfall production. Even though each forcing helps produce orographic rainfall, the mechanical forcing of the NGH plays a much larger role in the orographic blocking than the thermal forcing. We also found two flow regimes associated with the propagation of MJO07-08 over the NGH. First, in the flow-around regime, the MJO and its associated convective system split around the NGH due to the strong orographic blocking. We can observe this splitting when looking at the splitting stage. Second, the flow-over regime could occur when the mountain is lower than its original height or the flow has a smaller Froude number. A series of numerical experiments indicate that the maximum orographic rainfall increases with increased mountain height; however, the maximum orographic rain decreases when the flow transitions to the flow-around regime. Finally, some common ingredients for orographic rainfall associated with the MJO07-08 passing over the NGH are consistent with those found for tropical cyclones passing over mountains.
This work deals with the petrographic and geotechnical characterization of rocks from the N'goura massif with focus on their use in civil engineering. The study area is located in central southern Chad, about 205km to the north of N'Djamena. The N'goura massif is monzogranitic with two micas. The rocks outcrop as blocks, slabs and balls displaying fine, medium and coarse grained minerals. Monzogranite is composed of 34% quartz, 32% alkali feldspar, 26% plagioclase, 4% biotite, 2% muscovite and 1% chlorite on average. Geotechnical data show that the aggregates obtained from this rock have a Los Angeles coefficient ranging from 22.70 to 38.70% with an average of 30.70%, a Microdeval coefficient ranging from 4 to 13% with an average of 8.5% and a dynamic fragmentation coefficient ranging from 11.43 to 18.57% with an average of 15%. These results indicate that the studied materials are suitable to be used for construction and civil engineering works. The correlation between petrographic and geotechnical data reveals that the size (texture), grain structure and mineralogical composition (Qtz, Kfs and Bt+Ms+Chl+Ser) have an influence on the geotechnical behavior of these materials.
Earth Science Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. Earth Science Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please contact us for the application form at: esr@ccsenet.org. Reviewers for Volume 11, Number 1 Ahmet KARAKAŞ, Kocaeli University, Turkey Angelo Paone, Pusan National University, Italy Ann Godelieve Wellens, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico Fehmi ARIKAN, General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration Company, Turkey Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari, Isfahan University of Technology, Iran Pedram MASOUDI, Geovariances, France Saumitra Misra, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
In the “Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation” database, Antananarivo has two distinct datasets from two stations. Thirty-four years separate the two datasets. This study aims on the one hand to depict the variations of the water stable isotopes composition of precipitations from the two stations and understand their origins, mainly in relation to meteorological factors. On the other hand, the Antananarivo data are compared with regional and international data to identify other sources of isotope composition variability in precipitation. Isotope records showed that after thirty-four-year gap, summer and winter (the two main seasons) precipitations are more enriched in heavy isotopes. The precipitation amount fluctuation would mostly contribute to this temporal variation. Opposite to summer and winter precipitations, inter-season rainfalls have similar isotope values after thirty-four years. The two stations are geographically close and the spatial aspect is therefore negligible since there are no latitude nor altitude effects on the isotope composition of precipitations. Regarding the second order parameter d-excess, the monthly mean values from both stations are higher than 100/00 and could indicate moisture recycling. The comparison with regional/international data showed that the isotope variability in precipitation is primarily due to precipitation amount effect, different moisture source, the stations distance from it and the change of meteorological factors along the moisture trajectory.
The P10 well is located offshore, in the Northern part of the Rio Del Rey basin in southwest Cameroon. Although the Rio Del Rey basin is the most prolific coastal basin in Cameroon given the production results from several fields in the southern part, yet it remains very little explored in its northern part. This work evaluation the petroleum potential in the northern part of the Basin using a combination of the "Quick Look" interpretation of the logs recorded in well P10 and "complex matrix" facies analysis of the different lithofacies through the neutron porosity - bulk density (NPHI-RHOB) and delta time sonic - bulk density (DT-RHOB) diagrams. The composite log includes the Gamma Ray log; Caliper log; Deep Resistivity log; neutron porosity log and bulk density log. In addition to this composite log, a geological end of well report is completed to refine the results. Ten (10) near sand/sandstone reservoirs were delineated between 950 and 1803 TVD m (true vertical depth in meter) with very good porosities (12% <Φ< 30%) as well as a mineralogical composition dominated by quartz. Clay volumes are relatively lower than 18% except in reservoirs R5 and R6 where they are around 24%, giving the latter a sandy-clay lithology. Reservoirs R2 and R4 contain oil, the latter with a WOC (Water Oil Contact) at ~1172 m and a GOC (Gas Oil Contact) at 1169 m. Reservoirs R6; R7; R8; R9; R10 all contain Gas and Water with WGC (Water Gas Contact) located at ~1431 m; 1530 m; 1690 m and ~1790 m respectively. In the light of these results, there is a clear dominance of gaseous hydrocarbon reservoirs over oil-impregnated ones in the study area. The results provided by this work can serve as baseline data for future oil and gas exploration projects in the northern part of the Rio Del Ray Basin.
A recently proposed and fundamentally different Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (new paradigm) is used to explain previously reported and other anomalous Monongahela River drainage basin drainage system evidence (observable on detailed topographic maps in the form of barbed tributaries, asymmetric tributary drainage basins, large abandoned meander cutoffs, and poorly explained transverse drainages and abandoned transverse drainages). The north-oriented Monongahela River drainage system according to the accepted Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (accepted paradigm) originated during preglacial times and was blocked by continental icesheets to form today’s Ohio River. Based on Missouri River drainage basin topographic map evidence the new paradigm predicts the Monongahela River drainage system developed during immense and prolonged south- and southwest-oriented continental icesheet melt water floods. The new paradigm also predicts icesheet caused regional uplift created a deep “hole” in which a thick icesheet was located and which forced south-oriented melt water floods to flow in southwest directions along the deep “hole’s” southeast rim (now the Ohio River-Atlantic Ocean drainage divide) until continued deep “hole” rim uplift and the deep valley headward erosion from space being opened up by icesheet melting reversed the flow direction to create the north-oriented Monongahela River drainage system. This new paradigm interpretation explains previously reported and other anomalous Monongahela River drainage system topographic map evidence and suggests the Monongahela River drainage system developed while a continental icesheet melted and not during preglacial time as has been commonly reported.
The Miocene rocks of the Marádah Formation have been stratigraphically investigated from four stratigraphical sections around the Marádah Oasis in the Central Sirt Basin of Libya. The field investigations led to the identification of two members, the lower Qarat Jahannam Member and the upper Ar Ráhlah Member. Fourteen sedimentary facies at the outcrop-scale representing a gradual development of sedimentation from a continental clastic witness in the southwestern outcrops to transitional estuarine, lagoonal, and beaches to the proximal offshore in the northern outcrops, were recognized. The results indicates that the accumulation of the Marádah Formation is transgressive in nature and corresponding to two phases of deposition which have been mentioned in the earlier studies. The first phase is continental-dominated facies in which cross-bedded sandstones and calcareous sands comprise most of the depositional sequence of the lower Qarat Jahannam Member at the southwestern outcrops. This phase, however, is characterized by extremely bioturbated laminated-shale conquered by Skolithos ichnofacies in the lower part of the upper Ar Ráhlah Member at the northern outcrops. This phase is providing further evidence that the contact between the two members is diachronous everywhere in the study area. The clastic-phase has thought to be deposited in the Lower Miocene (Aquitanian-Burdigalian) since the lower Qarat Jahannam Member rests on an erosional surface of submarine origin in the southwestern outcrops above a 0.5 m. thick of a nummulitic unit of the Oligocene Bu Hashish Formation. The second phase is marine-dominated facies in which a bioclastic limestone unit rich in thick and disarticulated oysters, including Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlottheim), characterizes the sediments of the Ar Ráhlah Member at the southwestern outcrops. This phase also includes the upper part of the latter member at the northern outcrops in which a detrital limestone unit rich in turritelline gastropods is overlying by thick-bedded calcarenites rich in disarticulated oysters, gastropods, irregular echinoids (notably, Clypeaster and Echinolampas), bryozoans, and celestite corals. The upper part of the Ar Ráhlah Member at the northern outcrops, nevertheless, is terminated by a quite hard dolomitic limestone and by a pretty soft dolomitic marly limestone. Both lithologies, however, are combined with medium-sized oysters, including Ostrea digitalina Fuchs, and pectinid bivalves. The second phase, however, is interpreted to be deposited in the Middle Miocene (Langhian and Serravallian) based on the total-stratigraphic range of the larger benthic foraminifera Borelis melo melo (Fichtel & Moll), which recovered from the studied washed residues, and the associated microfacies.
