Although visual impairment is the most common disability among Jordanians, there is currently very little research examining motor competence in this population. Motor competence of children with visual impairment has been mainly investigated in developed countries. Considering the different education system, the aim of this study was to examine gross motor skills in youth with visual impairments in developing countries, using Jordan as a case study. A total of 65 children aged 6-12 years participated, with their motor skills assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development third edition, a validated tool for evaluating gross motor development in children with disabilities. The study compared performance across sex, age, and levels of visual impairment. Results showed that boys outperformed girls in specific ball skills, and older children excelled in certain locomotor skills. Children with low vision significantly surpassed children with complete blindness (B1s) in both locomotor and ball skills, with substantial disparities observed in six motor skills. Effect sizes were particularly pronounced for skills such as running, striking, and throwing. These findings underscore the significant impact of visual impairment on motor competence, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to enhance physical fitness for children with visual impairments in similar contexts.
Motor skills are important for lifelong health and are often assessed in childhood, with well-documented gender and weight differences. However, how these differences persist into young adulthood remains less understood and underexplored. The purpose of this study was to examine gender and body mass index differences in motor skills among young adults (18-25 years) using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-3. 131 young adults were recruited, and 123 (46% male, Mage=21.86 +/- 1.87 years) completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-3 and self-reported demographic information. Height and weight were objectively measured, and body mass index was calculated (in kilogram per square meter). A Kruskal-Wallis test was used on Movement Assessment Battery for Children-3 subscales and total scores due to violations of normality and visual inspections of plots. There was a significant effect for gender on aiming and catching (p < .001), with males outperforming females. Conversely, females outperformed males in manual dexterity (p < .001) and balance (p = .013). Participants classified as normal weight performed significantly better than those overweight (p = .015) on balance. No significant main effects were found on total motor scores for either gender or body mass index (all p> .05). Results emphasize the need to further explore how gender and weight influence motor skills in young adults and how these relationships are mediated by other health outcomes.
Limited evidence exists examining associations between motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness in young adults. The study aims were to (a) determine group differences in MC and fitness in a sample of young adults, (b) examine the strength of the relationship between motor and fitness measures, and (c) determine the extent to which MC predicts fitness results. Young adults (n = 332, Mage = 21.47 +/- 1.83) were recruited from seven universities across the United States of America, Italy, and Spain. Product-oriented measures of MC (kick and receive, throw-catch, jump, and Supine-to-Stand and Go) and health-related fitness (handgrip, plank, push-up, and 20-m shuttle run) were used. Group comparisons were analyzed using Kruskall-Wallis H and Mann-Whitney U tests. In both motor and fitness assessments, the U.S. sample tended to perform significantly better than their Italian and/or Spanish counterparts. The Italian sample outperformed the Spanish sample in all motor and fitness measures, except for aerobic fitness. Associations between motor and fitness tests were determined via Pearson correlations ranging from +/- 0.20 to 0.70. Linear regression results indicate that sex, not MC, was the strongest predictive variable for fitness outcomes. Cross-cultural differences in MC and fitness exist but it is not clear why or when these differences begin to emerge.
This cross-sectional study investigated the associations between vitamin D levels, handgrip strength, and gross motor coordination in 86 healthy children (51.2% male). Blood samples were analyzed to measure serum vitamin D levels, handgrip strength was measured using handgrip dynamometry, and motor quotient was assessed using the K & ouml;rper Koordinationstest f & uuml;r Kinder. Sociodemographic data were collected through a questionnaire. The analyses revealed no influence of vitamin D on handgrip strength. In the regression model, vitamin D was a significant predictor of the motor quotient (B =1.35, 95% CI [0.12, 2.57]), independent of covariates. The household income variable also stood out as it was significant both as a predictor of the influence of vitamin D on motor quotient (B = -59.50, 95% CI [-96.80, -22.20]) and as a moderator of this influence (B = 59.46, 95% CI [10.04, 108.87]). Including sociodemographic factors, such as income, was crucial for understanding the relationship between vitamin D and motor quotient in children. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss and evaluate how different socioeconomic statuses, growth phases, access to balanced nutrition, and physical and metabolic health conditions influence physical performance behavior in the pediatric population.
Fundamental motor skills are critical for the holistic development of youth and predictive of future physical activity and sport involvement. LiFEsports is one sport-based positive youth development program known to produce social development outcomes; however, its contribution to fundamental motor skills development has not yet been studied. This study examined changes in object control (OC) skills (M= 3.04, SD = 4.49) among 72 youth aged 8-12 who participated in the LiFEsports program. Overall, the mean OC scaled score prior to the program was 8.46 (SD = 2.81), while the mean at posttest was 9.75 (SD = 2.82). Analysis of variance analyses were used to explore pre-and posttest outcomes overtime, as well as the effects by sex and return status. Time was a significant predictor of growth in OC skills, along with sex differences at pre-and posttests, with male participants outperforming female participants. There was also a significant interaction (p < .05) between sex and return status. Follow-up analyses revealed consistent sex differences (p < .05) for nonreturners; however, returners eliminated existing sex differences in OC skills. This study provides initial evidence for how LiFEsports participation contributes to fundamental motor skills development, a prerequisite for long-term involvement in sport and physical activity.
Motor competence (MC) development from an early age is crucial for fostering healthy developmental trajectories. However, recent evidence suggests a secular decline in MC from age three onward, whereas the status of MC in children under 3 years is scarcely documented. This pilot study assessed MC of Flemish toddlers relative to the benchmarks of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-Second Edition and evaluated the effectiveness of a 20-week intervention targeting locomotion, stationary skills, and object manipulation. A nonrandomized controlled trial was conducted in 12 Flemish daycare centers, with 104 toddlers (intervention: n = 54, control: n = 50; mean age =19.9 +/- 3.0 months). At baseline, results showed a significant leftward shift in MC profiles (p < .001, Cramer's V= .236) with fewer toddlers classified as above average or superior compared with the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-Second Edition reference values. Regardless of toddlers' sex, the intervention significantly improved locomotion (p = .025; eta(2)(p) = .053) and stationary skills (p = .007; eta(2)(p) = .077) but not object manipulation. Given the high daycare attendance rate in Flanders (>70%), these settings offer a valuable opportunity to foster MC development. However, interventions must be feasible, sustainable, and aligned with daycare practices to ensure long-term impact.
Neurodivergent children, particularly autistic and those with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), often have challenges with postural control. Here, we compared aspects of postural control using the Sensory Organization Test (SOT) in 75 children (male = 49 and female = 26) aged 5-16 years: 25 autistic (M = 8.7, SD = 2.5), 25 with DCD (M = 8.3, SD = 3.1), and 25 neurotypical (NT) controls (M = 9.4, SD = 2.9). The SOT yields anterior/posterior sway (equilibrium scores), strategies used to maintain sway (strategy score [SS]), and sensory organization (ratios). A general linear model analysis revealed significant group differences. Autistic children and those with DCD demonstrated significantly lower equilibrium across all SOT conditions compared with NT peers (p<.05). For SSs, children with DCD did not differ from NT peers in the eyes-open, quiet-stance condition but showed significantly lower SSs in all other SOT conditions (p < .05). Autistic children exhibited significantly lower SSs across all SOT conditions (p < .05). Age as a covariate was a significant predictor of equilibrium scores (p < .05) but not SSs. Sensory organization analysis indicated that autistic children had significantly lower visual and vestibular ratios compared with NT peers (p < .05), whereas children with DCD displayed ratios comparable to NT peers. In conclusion, both neurodivergent groups showed reduced anterior-posterior sway maintenance capabilities but differed in the strategies and sensory mechanisms used to maintain posture.
Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by impaired motor coordination, significantly affecting daily activities. This study aimed to analyze gross motor milestone trajectories in children with DCD, while controlling for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism symptomology, compared with typically developing children. Data from the Coordination and Activity Tracking in CHildren (CATCH) study were analyzed (n = 505 children, baseline age 4-5 years) from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Children were categorized by motor proficiency level (Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2; MABC) as having probable DCD (<6th MABC percentile); being at risk for DCD (sixth to 16th MABC percentile); or motorically typically developing (>16th a MABC percentile). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptomology, autism symptomology, and motor milestone age when achieved were assessed using parent-report scales. A latent growth curve analysis was conducted to examine patterns of motor milestone achievement. Controlling for attention deficit hyperactivity and autism symptoms, probable DCD was associated with standing assisted 0.6 months later than typically developing children, and a delayed trajectory of milestone progression. Children at risk of DCD did not demonstrate delayed achievement of motor milestones. Delayed achievement of motor milestones-though small-may be associated with probable DCD.
Cognitive-motor interference occurs when performing motor and cognitive tasks simultaneously causes a measurable change in one or both tasks compared with doing them separately. Cognitive-motor interference varies with age in typically developing individuals, but data are lacking for those with intellectual disability. This study explored the age differences in cognitive-motor interference among individuals with intellectual disability. Eleven older adults, 12 young adults, and 12 adolescents with intellectual disability participated in this study. Center of pressure mean velocity and scores in the verbal fluency test were evaluated in single-task and dual-task (DT) conditions during rigid surface with eyes open, rigid surface with eyes closed, and compliant surface with EO. The DT costs (DTC) for postural and cognitive performances were analyzed. Results showed a significant effect (eta (2) (p) = .42) of age on postural DTC. Both older adults (p < .001) and adolescents (p < .05) presented higher postural DTC compared with young adults in all postural conditions. The postural DTC was higher (p < .001) in the compliant surface with EO condition compared with the rigid surface with eyes open and the rigid surface with eyes closed conditions in all groups. Both adolescents and older adults with intellectual disability are more susceptible to the cognitive-motor interference compared with young adults.
The concept of functional fitness describes the multifaceted nature of motor competence, combining musculoskeletal fitness, coordination, stability, and object control. This study aimed to assess functional fitness level variance across elementary school grades and analyze the relationship of functional fitness components with body mass index, maturity offset, and physical activity. Seventy-one children (mean age 8.49 +/- 1.48 years) performed seven tests: Push-Up, Handgrip, Supine-to-Stand-and-Go, Standing Long Jump, Kick and Receive, Throw and Catch, and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run. Each participant, under parental supervision, also completed the Italian version of Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance or Kruskal-Wallis tests, as appropriate. Significant differences across grades were observed in Handgrip (p < .001, & varepsilon;(2) = 0.50), Kick and Receive (p = .008, eta(2) = .19), and Throw and Catch (p < .001, & varepsilon;(2) = 0.31). Post hoc analysis revealed that Fifth-Year students demonstrated higher competency levels compared with First-Year students. Correlation matrices identified some significant associations between previous tests' scores and body mass index, whereas maturity offset correlated significantly only with Handgrip and Throw and Catch. These results highlight the importance of accounting for individual differences in evaluating and planning for children's holistic motor-functional development.
Previous studies have shown similar performance improvements from practice in an immersive virtual reality (VR) environment and physical practice in a real-world (RW) environment. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the acquisition of a motor skill across several days in VR and RW environments and compare the transfer of learning, neural activity, and intrinsic motivation. University students were randomly assigned to a VR (n = 22) or a RW (n = 20) practice condition. On Days 1-3, participants performed a 10-trial golf putt pretest in both VR and RW environments, followed by a 60-golf putt practice phase in their assigned group while wearing an electroencephalography headset. Intrinsic motivation was assessed before and after each practice session. Day 4 included posttests in both environments. Analysis of RW pre- and posttest performance (transfer for VR, retention for RW) revealed that both groups significantly reduced radial error (i.e., accuracy; p < .001, eta(2)(p )= .303) and bivariate variable error (i.e., precision; p < .001, eta(2)(p )= .232) with no between-group differences. No differences emerged in electroencephalography activity or intrinsic motivation. Immersive VR environments appear to provide adequate perceptual and sensory information, resulting in similar motor learning effects and neural activity.
Effective interventions for mental health and physical health in children with developmental coordination disorder are needed. eHealth-based interventions may offer promising approaches for this population. This study explored the impact of an eHealth intervention that combined educational materials, social media support, and step-measured physical activity for families of children with developmental coordination disorder. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n =12) or a waitlist control group (n = 6). Both groups completed an 8-week, educational-based program delivered via social media. Garmin activity watches were used to track daily step counts, and 12 of the 18 families completed both pre-and postinvention assessment. None of the participants met international physical activity guidelines. While overall quality of life, school functioning, and physical functioning improved, social functioning and psychosocial health showed contrasting perceptions between parents and children. Although the intervention did not impact physical activity levels, it was associated with improvements in quality of life. These findings suggest that eHealth interventions may need to go beyond education and consider additional strategies to support physical activity engagement in children with developmental coordination disorder and their families.
Skill acquisition is associated with concurrent gains in motor and proprioceptive performance. Dyad practice-two learners alternating between physical and observational practice-can enhance motor learning, but its effects on proprioceptive learning remain unclear. Forty-two healthy participants (18-35 years) were randomized into three groups: dyad practice, physical practice with rest (PP-rest), and physical practice without rest (PP-no rest). Participants practiced a wrist movement task for 20 min using a wrist-robotic device. Outcome measures were a kinematic-based Motor Performance Score reflecting motor performance, and the wrist position sense Just-Noticeable-Difference threshold and Uncertainty as measures of proprioceptive acuity. Dyads had higher Motor Performance Score than both PP groups at the end of training (p < .001) and at retention (p = .02). Improved JustNoticeable-Difference thresholds were only observed in the PP-no rest group at retention (p = .03). No significant differences in Uncertainty were found. Changes in Motor Performance Score and Just-Noticeable-Difference or Uncertainty were not significantly correlated (p> .05). Dyad practice yielded superior gains in motor performance, but no comparable gains in proprioceptive acuity. Possibly, the recruitment of explicit motor learning mechanisms during dyad motor skill practice does not enhance the implicit learning mechanisms underlying proprioceptive learning.
Cooperative dyadic practice may promote higher motivation, leading to better learning. However, it may also foster the elaboration of explicit rules about motor tasks, impairing performance in dual-task or social pressure tests. In the current study, we aimed to investigate whether cooperative dyadic practice benefits or impairs motor learning. Sixty-one participants were assigned to one of two groups: dyadic practice group (DG) or individual practice group. They performed a golf putt on a flat, artificial turf indoor green. The acquisition phase consisted of three sessions, each with four blocks of 15 trials. The learning tests consisted of retention and transfer tests (dual-task and social pressure). We assessed individuals' working memory capacity, motivation, and explicit knowledge. DG and individual practice group did not differ in their number span or rules reported. In contrast, DG presented higher perceived competence but higher perceived pressure/tension. There were no differences in performance in the learning tests, although the DG took longer to finish the dual-task transfer test. Therefore, dyadic practice does not facilitate explicit learning but promotes a higher perception of competence and pressure/tension. Relatedly, dyadic practice does not drop performance under dual-task or social pressure conditions, although it reduces efficiency in a dual task.
The question of how to organize the practice for learning skills of a given sport is still unresolved. Despite the common belief that random practice is more beneficial for retention/transfer tests in motor learning than blocked practice, recent reviews demonstrate limitations in generalizing this effect for the sport context. Therefore, we investigated the effect of random and blocked practice schedules on learning the football kick. Seventy subjects aged 6-11 years were tested in five different kicking conditions varying whether the kick was (1) for maximum velocity of the ball, or whether the kick was for precision depending on the initial position of the ball; (2) stationary ball; (3) under kicker's control; (4) with the ball at a constant speed; and (5) with the ball at varied speeds-as in a pass. For the practice phase, participants performed the four precision conditions under either block or random practice schedules. After seven practice sections, both groups improved similarly from pre- to posttests (120 hr after practice) in performance and overall movement pattern considering retention (Conditions 2-5) and transfer (Condition 1). Blocked and random practice conditions did not lead to distinct outcomes in learning the football kick.
School closures are commonly implemented during outbreaks of infectious diseases, extreme weather events, and periods of elevated air pollution, primarily as preventive measures to limit transmission and exposure. A randomized controlled trial design was employed, incorporating pre-, posttest, and follow-up assessments. A total of 37 participants were randomly assigned to three groups. Children in both the online and face-to-face groups participated in a structured 12-week PE program. Motor competence was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3. Statistical analysis was performed using mixed-design analysis of variance with Bonferroni post hoc comparisons to assess the interaction and main effects on motor competence. Results indicated that only the face-to-face PE instruction led to significant improvements in locomotor and ball skills from pre- to posttest, and these gains were maintained at follow-up. The online PE program did not produce statistically significant improvements compared with the control group. The findings suggest that in-person instruction remains more effective than online formats for promoting motor competence in preschool children (p <= .05). These results underscore the need to further refine and evaluate remote PE delivery models to support children's motor development during periods of educational disruption caused by school closures.
