This study explored professional development experiences of 28 practicing teachers in 10 Chicago suburban schools involved in a two-year technology supported Problem-Based Learning curriculum development effort. Asynchronous computer-mediated communications (CMC) were featured as teacher communication tools of project. The computer-mediated discourse produced by teachers was compared with discourse produced by teachers in face-to-face meetings. Research methods including discourse analysis and archival data analysis were applied to determine nature of teacher discourse and its reflective content. The results show that while computer-mediated teacher dialogue was less interactive, it was significantly more reflective (t=4.14, p=.001) than face-to-face discourse. The study findings suggest that value of CMC lies in its ability to facilitate professional collaboration between teachers and encourage critical reflection on educational policy and practice. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) presents teachers with new opportunities for communication. Though use of CMC suggests more convenient access to professional colleagues, it does not ensure professional growth and experiences. The purpose of this study was to determine if and how critical reflection--as a meaningful professional development objective--arises from computer-mediated collaborative dialogue. This research begins by examining role of collaboration and dialogue in teacher learning. Applications of CMC for teacher development are reviewed followed by a description of study context. The results of research are presented followed by a discussion of network technology's capacity for facilitating new conceptions of inservice teacher development, and engaging professionals in an analysis of practice that is both contextually relevant and informed by experiences of peers. TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Calls for educational reform in our nation's schools are driven by desire to achieve high standards in student performance. These standards are aimed at preparing students for a technology-dominated work place where teamwork, complex and meaningful problem solving, and critical thinking are necessary skills (McKinsey & Co., 1995; The Secretary's Commission on Necessary Skills, 1991). Many reform efforts targeting these outcomes, however, have been unable to produce kind of demanded by reformers. Reaching school improvement objectives initiated by school reform movement, Darling-Hammond (1998) indicated, is likely to be dependent on dramatically increased support for teachers and learning (p. 6). Failures of past reform efforts, Darling-Hammond continued, has been due to the lack of sustained, serious, systemic investments in knowledge base of individual educators (p. 11). Professional development for teachers constitutes formal and informal processes of knowledge and skill building. Types of professional development over past several decades have included pursuit of advanced degrees, school- and district wide meetings, conferences and workshops, and personal study on selected topics. Though it had taken a permanent place in school culture, professional development lacked, for most part, ability to improve student and teacher practice (Rallis, Ross-man, Phelgar, & Abeille, 1995). Lieberman (1995) characterized such professional development activities as nothing more than delivery of an assortment of relatively abstract ideas providing little support to practice of continuous learning. Little (1993) added that development activities were episodic and training oriented, placing teachers in passive roles as consumers of knowledge produced elsewhere. Achieving a clearer vision of improvement in current of school reform requires an expanded recognition of teacher development needs. Teachers should have opportunities to examine their beliefs about teaching and and to construct their own knowledge in a supportive environment that encourages risk taking and reflection. …
This case study of teachers' professional development in instructional technology explores three assumptions. The first is that teachers are at various levels in their knowledge and use of technology, and that these levels are developmental. Teachers' levels of knowledge and use are described using a classification of teachers' developmental levels of knowledge and skill in applying technology in the classroom along a continuum of nonreadiness, survival, mastery impact, and innovation. The second assumption is that staff development for instructional technology needs to be based on what are currently construed as for teachers' professional development. Current best practices suggest that while staff development may begin with conventional inservice training, it should move quickly beyond to efforts that support teachers' development as professionals involved in decision-making, inquiry, and leadership in their classroom teaching. In order to develop as professionals, teachers specifi cally need help and support in integrating new knowledge and skills into their classroom practice. The case data offer valuable support for theorizing about teachers' professional development in technology that characterizes the professional literature. The third assumption for this study is that teachers' professional development in technology may well serve to further larger goals of school reform. This assumption is addressed in a discussion of what was observed to be the infrastructure that already exists and that is still needed to support teachers' continuing development in technology at the school studied. Attention must be paid to this infrastructure both to understand and to affect the kind of change necessary for school reform. As technology changes the ways that schools themselves are structured, efforts to meld innovation in instructional technology with best practices in teachers' professional development catalyzes other elements of school reform. For over three years the middle school that was the site for this study developed a reputation in the district for doing a good job helping teachers become knowledgeable about technology and how to integrate it into their curriculum. This particular school offers an interesting site for investigation because it is representative of a great many schools in this country in terms of what is available in the way of technology equipment and support for its use, as well as in terms of where teachers are in their knowledge and use of technology (Fabry & Higgs, 1997). Although roughly 90% of the teachers in this particular school have completed district training requirements necessary to receive a personal computer (a teacher tool, to use the district language) for their classroom use, the school is hardly on the cutting edge of technology. Computers remain centrally located in labs, school-wide access to the Internet and the district network have recently occurred, both software and hardware are at least three to five years behind current technology standards, and most teachers still view technology as adjunct rather than integral to their teaching. Nonetheless, this school is one where attention is being paid to teachers' professional development in the area of technology, and where there is interest in how that development can best be encouraged and supported. [1] On the basis of this reputation the school was chosen for a case study of how the efforts in staff development in technology were supporting teachers in learning and using technology, and also whether this emphasis on technology was causing changes on a school wide level. The study of this school employed mixed qualitative methods of survey, field observations and interviews to explore teachers' professional development needs, and how meeting these needs can lead to changes in conventional school structures and practices that reflect current ideas about school reform (Hargreaves, 1994; Jones, Valdez, Nowakowski, & Rasmussen; Means, Blando, Olson, Middleton, Morocco, Remz, & Zorfass). …
Professional organizations in many subject areas have emphasized changing the way subject matter is taught by actively involving students in critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and exploration. One way to accomplish this is with the use of technology and constructivism, although many barriers to technology integration exist. This article follows a classroom teacher through five years of working to integrate technology, and in turn, constructivism into his classroom. This teacher was successful in helping his students gain new skills or enhance existing skills in technology, critical thinking, collaboration, presentation, and self-learning. The teacher's changes in instructional practices, his reflections on these changes, how he overcame common barriers to integrate the technology, and the benefits to himself and his students are discussed. Standards for professional organizations in many subject areas have emphasized actively engaging students in critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994; National Council of Teachers of English, 1996; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1993; NRC, 1996). Social studies reform efforts have stressed changing the manner in which social studies has been taught and learned (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994) to include role-playing, simulations, and other activities to involve students in critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making. The Standards for the English Language Arts (National Council of Teachers of English, 1996) urge English language arts teachers to promote classroom communities where students are engaged in an active process of language use and learning (p. 13). The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1993) provide guidelines that focus on e xploration, problem solving, connections, reasoning, and communication. Researchers believe that technology has the potential for transforming traditional, teacher-centered classrooms into student-centered, collaborative classrooms (Peck & Dorricott, 1994; Tierney, 1996; White 1996, 1999) that would offer students those opportunities, and for encouraging the use of constructivist principles. The transformation of a classroom, though, can be a difficult process. It involves a need to overcome a variety of barriers. When attempting to integrate technology, teachers typically encounter barriers such as a lack of or inadequate training and staff development in using the technology, knowledge of how to integrate technology into the curriculum, teacher pedagogical beliefs, access to equipment, time to learn technologies, and administrative support (Faison, 1996; Langone, Wissick, Langone, & Ross, 1998; Siegel, 1995; U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). According to Faison (1996), many practicing and preservice teachers report inadequacies in the types of computer technology programs offered in teacher preparation programs. They report that they have had no systematic exposure to or integration of technology in their teacher education program (Faison, 1996, p. 57). Many higher education institutions have provided a single technology course to aid preservice teachers in gaining technical competence (Hargrave & Hsu, 2000; Hess, 1990), but many of these courses teach technology as an isolated subject and do not provide training in how to use technology in specific disciplines or how to integrate it into the curriculum (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Novak & Berger, 1991). Jerald and Orlofsky (1999), noted as few as 20% of teachers reported that they felt prepared to integrate technology into the curriculum. Faison (1996) maintained that some of the causes for inadequate preparation of preservice teachers were a lack of funding for support and a lack of up-to-date computers in teacher education programs. …
The as staff development model provides a comprehensive framework for faculty and staff training. The research-based model focuses on a number of interrelated concepts designed to generate shared responsibility among faculty, staff and administration. The as model involves ongoing support, modeling, and accountability. The model was used to develop two nationally recognized programs, Student Assistance for At Risk individuals (SAFARI) and the technology program in the Westfield Washington Schools, Westfield, Indiana. Program developers also received a National Award for Excellence, for the as model from the National Council of States on Inservice Education, in November, 1993. An evaluation component has been added to the model since initial development in 1989. Staff development is one of the last, best hopes for educational improvement. Politicians and reformers continue to devise new solutions to the purported educational decline. While some of these innovations are beneficial, the reality is improvement and change remain closely related to human resource development. Those who seek to improve education must first focus on enhancing teacher and administrator skills. This is best accomplished through planned, coordinated, ongoing staff development. Unfortunately, staff development has not always materialized into the changes desired by school officials (Williams, 1979; Wood & Thompson, 1980; Thompson & Cooley, 1986; Clark, & Astuto, 1994; Maurer & Davidson, 1998). Many of the reforms of the 1980s and 1990s failed to produce the intended results (Clark & Astuto, 1994). Legislated improvement efforts espoused by politicians generally focused on singular solutions with little coordination or movement towards systematic change affecting the entire organization (David, 1991). Sarason (1990) suggested that the failure of reform was related to power relationships between teachers and administrators. These relationships cannot be transformed by focusing on symptoms or isolated issues. Educational organizations must be reengineered to develop human resources and build trust, credibility, and collaboration. Traditional management schemes should redistribute power with emphasis directed towards participatoiy management (Champy, 1995). Many politicians, business leaders, parents, and community leaders see schools as simplistic institutions easily transformed into effective learning organizations. The truth is schools are complex institutions mired in a culture that embraces confo rmity, order, and routine (Deal, 1990). Gilly and Boughton (1996) suggested that efforts to improve productivity have been characterized by a number of ongoing innovations or fads that failed due to educational malpractice. According to Gilly and Boughton (1996) managers actually contribute to organizational dysfunction by supporting people who do not understand management, do not possess human relations skills, or who promote the individual instead of the group. Accountability is also one of the shortcomings contributing to malpractice. In effective organizations, workers share responsibility and focus on problem-solving instead of projecting blame at one another (Kouzes & Posner 1993). The purpose of this article is to examine the Teachers as Trainers model, a site-based staff development program that emphasizes faculty and staff empowerment, accountability, responsibility, and ongoing support. A as staff development model was used to provide training for two nationally recognized programs in the Wesffield Washington Schools (Westfield, Indiana). In the first program, Student Assistance for At Risk Individuals (SAFARI), the district provided 2,400 hours of training for 110 employees over a four-year period. Later, the as model was refined and used to support a 2 million dollar technology platform, financed in part through a partnership with GTE North, Inc. …
The purpose this article is to discuss the redesign of an introductory education technology course required for all teacher education students at a midwestern university. Challenges that prompted the revision are discussed and redesign requirements established by the College of Education Technology Advisory Team are identified. A traditional lecture/laboratory introductory course was redesigned resulting in a course with technology instruction delivered through videotape. The redesigned course kept features from the traditional lecture/laboratory course including the use of professional society standards as a basis for content, electronic mail for instructor-student communication, and the employment of undergraduate students for technical support in computer laboratories. Comparisons of student perceptions related to content, delivery, and time involved in the traditional and redesigned courses are reported. A discussion of research findings, course trends, and recommendations are included. With the influx of computer based technologies and digital devices, and the arrival of students who grew up with Nintendo, Internet, and MTV, teacher educators are challenged to prepare a future generation of K-12 teachers to use new and emerging technologies for learning and teaching. This article identifies challenges encountered when planning an introductory education technology course and describes how the College of Education at a midwestern university redesigned an introductory technology course required for students in all preservice programs. Student responses to the content, delivery, and time commitment for the traditional and redesigned course are reported and discussed. CHALLENGES The College of Education Technology Advisory Team was established to provide a vision and a plan for technology, identify technology problems, and make resource and curriculum recommendations for all teacher education programs. In 1995, this advisory group recognized the need to address new and recurring problems associated with the required introductory technology course. Although the course bore little resemblance to its' origin as a prestudent teaching media laboratory course designed to prepare students to develop projection and bulletin board skills, there was consensus that revision of the course was a prerequisite to the long term goal of integrating technology into all professional education courses. Stetson and Bagwell (1999) reminded readers that effective integration of computer technology into teacher education depends upon effective initial teaching, as well as integration into methods course, and accessible, adequate resources. Members of the Technology Advisory Team identified that the major ch allenges for this introductory course were associated with curriculum, staffing, and delivery. Curriculum Because the introductory technology course is fundamental to all professional education methods courses and most field experiences in the college, the guiding question was, What should preservice students know about and be able to do with technology at the conclusion of the introductory technology course? After the decision was made to use the national technology foundation standards for all teachers developed in 1995 by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) (1999), the major curriculum related problem stemmed from the fact that preservice students who enrolled in the course had a wide range of technological abilities and experiences. Students who came to class adequately prepared with technology based instruction in high school found the course requirements redundant, time consuming, and boring while some students described the course as too difficult and too fast paced. Staffing Staffing problems dealt with a relatively small qualified instructional staff of faculty and graduate teaching assistants assigned to teach approximately 250 students in 10 sections each semester. …
KAI HAKKARAINEN [1] HANNI MUUKONEN [2] LASSE LIPPONEN [1] LIISA ILOMAKI [1] MARJAANA RAHIKAINEN [3] The purpose of the study was to analyze relations between teachers' skills in using the new information and communication technology (ICT), their pedagogical thinking, and their self-reported practices. About 600 Finnish elementary and high school teachers representing 64.1% of the intended teacher population responded to a self-report questionnaire. The study indicated that only a small percentage of teachers had adequate technical ICT skills although a majority had access to computers either at home or at school. The study furnished evidence that, in the classroom, teachers who actively used ICT emphasized (more than other teachers) the importance of using information technology for supporting a research-like process of inquiry, collaborative learning, learners' active engagement in the knowledge-formation process, and the learnability of intelligence. Further, the results indicated that the discrepancy between teachers' pedagogical principles that commonly emphasized active construction of knowledge, and t heir self-reported pedagogical practices, was lower for teachers who intensively use ICT as compared with other teachers. The educational system in developed countries is facing major challenges as a consequence of the revolution of communication and information technology. Relationships in modem societies are transformed by emerging new means of creating, processing, accessing, and transferring information. Information and communication technologies are dramatically altering many aspects of economic and social life: production systems, working methods, and relations, the organization of companies, and the way people communicate with each other are under-going changes throughout the world. Productive functioning in emerging collaborative learning organizations requires, in adults, new self-regulative skills of controlling and directing one's own thinking processes and knowledge activities (Keating, 1995; 1996). The revolution of information and communication technologies (ICT) is a major challenge for teachers' professional development. They have to learn technical skills adequate to use ICT productively, as well as to instruct and guide the students to use ICT purposefully and generatively. Teachers not only have to become familiar with ICT but also to acquire the pedagogical expertise needed for fruitfully working with new technology-based learning environments. New pedagogical practices have to be explored and developed to facilitate higher-level knowledge acquisition skills the learners need to constructively adapt to the knowledge society. Currently, teachers' lack of technical expertise in ICT appears to significantly constrain possibilities of developing new and innovative computer-supported pedagogical practices. Further, to fully use new pedagogical possibilities offered by ICT, profound changes in teachers' conceptions of learning and knowledge are required. Technical expertise alone is not sufficient for exploiting new pedagogical possibilities provided by ICT; insofar as ICT is used in the educational system as a purely technical innovation, it is not likely that significant pedagogical progress will be achieved. Several cognitive researchers (e.g., Salomon, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1996; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994) have pointed out that many applications of educational technology support only lower-level processing of knowledge. Yet new pedagogical models of using educational technology, and particularly computer-supported collaborative learning environments, promise to provide new opportunities for solving pedagogical problems in the schools. Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994; in press), and others, have proposed that to meet the future challenges, schools be transformed into communities where productive working for advancing communal knowledge is a primary goal of both students and teachers. …
This article highlights the problems related to the development of professionals involved in the field of educational technology, defining a series of new professional roles, skills, and competencies acquired to respond to the job market demand in this field. A referential model for the staff involved in the development of networked-based courses or activities is also defined in the course of this article to cover all the necessities of a networked-based course development. It has become evident that there is a need to help teachers and operators of Information Technologies use technology effectively. Not only do they need to become proficient as users and acquire new technical skills, but they also need to learn to use the technological means efficiently as an educational tool (Giuli Pettenati, Baldini, & Palmisano, 1999; Pettenati, Giuli, Baldini, & Palmisano, 1999). This means that they have to invest time and resources, in order to master technologies and effectively accomplish instructional design. As the teachers are the main promoters of any innovative activities in education, it is of vital importance to facilitate their efforts to integrate new technologies into their work. The emergence of a complex electronic communications and information environment for learning and research is bringing into focus new roles for the services and staff with responsibility for promoting skilled use of networked information resources. Not only the delivery of networked courses, but als o the approach to the design of courses supported by the Information Technologies (IT) is rather different than is followed in a conventional training course. According to Levy, (1997) of the Department of Information Study of the University of Sheffield, the learner support in a networked learning environment required a broad professional development framework for information staff likely to be involved in developing online approaches. She adopted the term networked learner support (NLS) (Fowell & Levy, 1995) to denote computer-mediated approaches to reference assistance, user education and skills training for users of electronic information resources. She suggested that the new combination of skills required for effective provision of NLS would encompass information and IT expertise, as well as expertise in the educational uses of new information and communication technologies. The approach followed in this article starts from the analysis of the origins of the staff development needed and then to the description of the real market demand of new professionals, then goes on with the analysis of the different phases and responsibilities required to design an IT-sup ported training system to identify the roles, responsibilities, and co-operation involved. Then, a model for the skills development is given as a starting point for academic institutions and private companies, to train their staff to be ready for the demands of the IT society. Even if the purpose of this work was to identify the phases, tasks, and roles for the Instructional Design of a Web-based course, the analysis approach of this article is valid regardless of the technologies used, whether they involve video-conferencing, interactive TV, World Wide Web (WWW or Web), or other technologies. THE ORIGINS OF THE STAFF DEVELOPMENT NEED Unless teachers take the time to get acquainted with the use of technologies, all the good reasons which have been illustrated until now (Owston, 1997), and until a rationale approach is developed, the use of IT in classrooms will stay a sparse, occasional, and a personal choice. Although in Europe we are used to always being behind the level of information technology literacy of western countries, at present the situation of the integration of computer technology in the classrooms is encountering the same obstacles all over the world. Following debates on the Internet newsgroups, it was found that the principle issues of "faculty development" are well synthesized in the following quotations: These aspects can be summarized in two main classes of problems whose solutions, are respectively the concern of teachers and institutions: * Teacher related factors: -lack of time -computer avoidance -lack of motivation * Institution related factors: -lack of knowledge of IT benefits in the classroom -necessity to define new "teacher standards" (required skills, related - compensation, etc. …
Most teacher preparation programs offer one course in which preservice teachers are to develop their basic technology skills. If innovative pedagogy is the goal (of technology use in the classroom), the single instructional technology course may not effectively prepare preservice teachers to meet this goal. Knowledge of the format, content, and emphasis of the formal technology instruction that preservice teachers receive is imperative for establishing technology expectations for future teachers. Furthermore, such knowledge will provide insight into the status of instructional technology within schools of education. The preparation of preservice teachers to effectively use instructional technology is contingent, in part, on the basic attitudes and skills that preservice teachers develop with regards to instructional technology. In this article, the results of a survey of instructional technology courses at 88 teacher preparation institutions are presented. Descriptive statistics of the course format, content, and instructional emphasis are reported. Data analysis indicated that, in the introductory instructional technology courses, significantly more emphasis was placed on integrating instructional technologies into the curriculum than on using technologies for teacher productivity or personal use. The prescriptive and descriptive literature about instructional technology and teacher education depicts the transition occurring within U.S. schools of education. They increasingly acknowledge the need to prepare preservice teachers to use technology, and struggle with methods to provide that preparation effectively. One recurring theme is evident in this literature: integration (Abdel-Haqq, 1995; Gilmore, 1995; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Henry, 1993). University faculty, educational researchers, experienced K-12 teachers, and professional organizations call for the integration of technology into the educational curriculum of preservice teachers to foster the ability of future teachers to use technology to expand the learning of K-12 students. Such integration should be provided through improved syntonicity (i.e., more hands-on experiences for preservice teachers with realistic educational assignments) and increased modeling of technology by college faculty in both content and methods courses (P anel on Educational Technology, 1997; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). Clearly articulated in the prescriptive literature is the premise that preservice teachers' ability to integrate technology into the curriculum will be the result of two factors: their basic technology skills, and the effective modeling of technology integration by teacher educators (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997; Willis & Mehlinger, 1996; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Sudzina, 1993; Oke, 1992; Wiburg, 1991). From the descriptive literature, it is reasonable to surmise that most preservice teachers complete one course in instructional technology or media (Milken Exchange on Educational Technology, 1999; Novak & Berger, 1991). Furthermore, it is in this single course that preservice teachers are to develop the basic technology skills that will serve as the foundation for their ability to integrate technology into the K-12 curriculum. If, at most teacher preparation institutions, preservice teachers' instructional technology skills are developed in a single course, then knowledge of the content and format of that course should: * Provide a basis to further identify and investigate factors that contribute to the development of technology-using educators. * Provide insight into the status of instructional technology within schools of education. * Offer a clear depiction of the technology attitudes and skills of the next generation of teachers. Given the dynamic nature of technology, teacher educators and instructional technologists need to know how colleges and universities are preparing preservice teachers to use technology in the classroom. …
Interactive multimedia (IMM) and problem-based learning (PBL) are both significant trends in contemporary educational practice but they have not been widely applied together in teacher education. An IMM package based on PBL principles is being developed to assist teachers in learning to integrate technology into their teaching. It incorporates examples of the work and reflections of experienced teachers in a framework designed to engage users with authentic problems of professional practice. Preliminary evaluation of a prototype suggests that the strengths of IMM and PBL can be combined to produce a good effect.
To be effective users of computer technologies and be models for students' computer use, teachers must have positive computer attitudes and feel self-efficacious in using them. The computer training that teachers receive through their teacher education program is likely to foster positive computer affect, yet the change may require time and development. This longitudinal study examined prospective teachers' changes in perceived anxiety/discomfort with and usefulness of computer technology, frequency of using word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets, database management, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases, and perceived self-efficacy with the six selected computer technologies over three years of study. Statistical analyses of data involved three time periods and two student-teacher cohorts. Significant time effect, cohort effect, and time by cohort interaction effect are discussed. Technology is having a significant influence on the future of education. In some cases, computer technology has manifested its potential in helping teachers facilitate students' problem-solving skills, scientific inquiry, understanding of abstract mathematical concepts, communication skills, and workplace competencies (Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). Current learning theories, such as constructivism, emphasize using computer technology as a tool to access and organize information, and to construct knowledge. On the other hand, the Office of Technology Assessment (1995) reported that despite technologies available in schools, a substantial number of teachers report little or no use of computers for instruction (p. 1). Marcinkiewicz (1994) found that more than half of the teaching population displayed a pattern of under use or non-use of computer-related resources in schools. Evans-Andris (1995) examined 72 elementary teachers' computing styles. What was found was that more than half (60%) o f the teachers avoided using computers and treated computer lab visits as an aimless activity. Many teachers have doubts about computer technology and their own ability because computer technology was not part of their learning experience. In addition, the rapid evolution of computer applications in education appears to further complicate the situation. Therefore, teachers must have positive computer attitudes and feel self-efficacious in using computer technologies in order to model effective computer use for their students. THEORETICAL AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND Computer Affect Affect such as attitudes, values, and self-judgments can exert a profound effect on behaviors. Negative emotions are more likely to deter a person from trying new things, while positive affect tends to strengthen a person's belief and promote productive behavior (Campbell & Williams, 1990). The construct of computer attitudes has multiple dimensions. A substantial amount of literature suggests that computer anxiety can be a great obstacle for educators' computer adoption (Gabriel & MacDonald, 1996; Hakkinen, 1995; Handler, 1993; Hunt & Bohlin, 1993; Kernan & Howard, 1990; Koohang, 1989; Liu, Reed & Phillips, 1992; Loyd & Gressard, 1984; McInerney, McInerney & Sinclair, 1994; Reed & Overbaugh, 1992; Reed & Overbaugh, 1993; Robertson, Calder, Fung, Jones & O'Shea, 1995; Stimmel, Connor, McCaskill & Durrett, 1981). Stressful encounters with computers are likely to cause an aversive predisposition toward the object. Many studies also measured attitudes toward computer usefulness to help predict computer behavior . Campbell (1992) found that college students' attitudes toward the usefulness of computers were predictive of their enrollments in college computer courses. Marcinkiewicz (1994) reported that teachers' perceived relevance of computers for teaching was one of the factors that influenced their motivation to integrate computers into teaching. Perceived self-efficacy is defined as personal judgments of one's capability to organize and implement actions in specific situations that may contain novel, unpredictable, and possible stressful features (Schunk, 1984, p. …
Technology has become ubiquitous everywhere, except in schools. Although many schools are now acquiring the technology, not enough money is being set aside for professional development of teachers in the use of technology. Consequently, teachers do not feel adequately prepared to integrate technology into their daily practice. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of the World Wide Web (Web) and e-mail as a viable option for the professional development of K12 educators. Two classes were investigated: delivered using the Web and another in a face-to-face environment. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in this investigation. The researchers concluded that distance learning is not an education of inferior quality to those university courses taught on campus, and that classes delivered on the Web provide a viable option for professional development of K-12 teachers. TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY The latter part of the 20th century has been marked by technology changes that are increasingly affecting every aspect of human life: surgical operations that take place while the surgeon is a thousand miles apart from the patient, immediate voice and image transmission from side of the world to the other, and instantaneous dissemination of news. In a few words, we have left the industrial age behind and are now in the midst of the information/communication age. Niederhauser (1996) defines the information society as one in which the quality of life, as well as the prospects for social change and economic development, depend increasingly on information and its exploitation (p. 416). The source of power in the information/communication age is (Drucker, 1994; Toffler, 1990). Drucker (1994), who coined the term knowledge society, states that in such a society more knowledge, and especially advanced knowledge, will be acquired well past the age of formal schooling through processes that do not c enter on the traditional school. Moursund (1999) also discusses that traditional schooling worked fine when technological and societal changes were not as fast as in the times we live now. In this new century, educated people will not be judged only for what they have learned, but for what they can do to contribute to the common good. They will be required to constantly organize and use information to create new (McClintock, & Taipale, 1994). In these terms, citizens of this millennium must become, out of necessity, a society of lifelong learners. Internationally, the United States plays a key role in scientific advancements. Yet, for this country to remain competitive in the 21st century, a workforce that is highly skilled, especially in the use of technology, will be critical (U. S. Department of Labor Secretary's Commission on the Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) Report, 1991). It is increasingly clear that those who do not learn to think and work with technology today will be disadvantaged tomorrow. Despite the need for preparing technology-competent graduates, four in 10 teachers still report that their students do not use technology at all in a typical week, and three in 10 state that their students use technology only hour per week (Trotter, 1999). Then, it seems fair to say that many schools continue preparing citizens to function in an industrial age, rather than in a technology-rich information age. On the other hand, in fairness to the federal and school districts' efforts, it is necessary to mention that technology is steadily finding its way into the American classroom. Jerald and Orlofsky (1999) reported that 49% of instructional computers in the public and private schools in the U.S. are Power Macs or PCs with Pentium processors, and that the number of students per multimedia computer dropped from 21.2 in 1997 to 9.8 in 1999. However, the newest technology will not be a replacement for a skilled teacher, and the benefits that new technologies can bring to the students will increasingly depend on the teacher's ability to use these new tools (Trotter, 1999). …
This paper describes ways in which preservice students in an elementary education four-year degree program at the University of Regina (Saskatchewan) learn about and learn with information technology. Students learn specific skills and concepts related to informational technology (IT) and its uses and application to the classroom in specific ways at different stages of the program. Also discussed in the paper is the evolving faculty inservice training to reskill or retool instructors to enable them to provide meaningful IT experiences for students. One particular experiment is outlined, an experiment that addressed the content of and response to a specific set of five IT modules implemented in order to ensure that all students complete their education degrees with a mandatory set of technology concepts and skills, in a program where there is no mandatory computers in education class. Ways that students who have taken the five modules are using IT in pedagogically-appropriate ways are outlined. The paper also describes a vision of the IT future for faculty and students. (Author/AEF) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** Pedagogically Appropriate Integration of Informational Technology in an Elementary Preservice Teacher Education Program PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
This article gives an account of the development of a research perspective in pedagogy and information and communication technologies (ICT) in the context of visual education and the digital arts. The process shows the movement from realism to relativism; from a seemingly clear cut approach of observation and categorisation; through a critique of models of information literacy; to the restructuring of a project to investigate the interaction between teachers' knowledge of their pedagogical practices and their knowledge of ICT. It raises questions about the role that research can play in providing a view of pedagogy, both current and potential. As teacher educators in the UK with a commitment to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning, we live and work in interesting times. The cultural and political contexts of education and schooling raise challenges to many practices and beliefs. ICT has a cultural, economic, and educational impact in society that is reflected in the priority given to its development in education policy. These developments are taking place within a debate about what should be taught in schools and how it should be taught by teachers. These discussions are also part of a wider concern about what it means to be educated within our society at this time. There is the potential for ICT to be the catalyst for significant change in pedagogy, yet the picture painted and the policies proposed are not yet reflected in the experience of many classroom teachers. What role can research play in providing a view of pedagogy, both current and potential? How can knowledge and understanding of pedagogy w ith ICT be constructed by teachers, researchers, and policymakers to promote effective teacher education in this field? The purpose of this article is to contribute to the discussion of ways of knowing in the research process for both teachers and researchers. The discussion will consider a question that has underpinned a research and development project focusing on teachers' pedagogy with ICT in the media arts (Access: The Brighton Media Arts Project). The initial inquiry focused particularly on the understanding of literacy within the contexts of both the media arts and the general use of ICT in education. The influences of culture, subject knowledge, and pedagogy on the development of classroom practice was identified and presented within a framework that differentiated between mere practice and good practice. After further research and reflection, however, it was acknowledged that this framework did not reflect the complexity of the interaction of these themes in developing pedagogy. Additionally, this framework did not enable the production of a satisfactory description of teachers' experience in trying to meet the many requirements placed upon them in the use of ICT in their work. The research paradigm needed to encompass two approaches: an interpretivist approach to the teachers' experience and action, and a critical theory approach to the constraints and contradictions of the requirements placed upon teachers by political and structural systems. THE INITIAL RESEARCH ENQUIRY What is the interaction between teachers' knowledge of pedagogy and their knowledge of ICT in teaching and learning? This line of inquiry arose out of a desire to understand how the knowledge that underpins teachers' pedagogical practices interacts with the knowledge that they bring to their uses of ICT in learning environments. The nature and complexity of describing teacher knowledge and how teachers come to know is recognised (Shulman, 1986; Eraut, 1994), particularly in a national context in which teacher knowledge is increasingly defined and prescribed. The effective use of ICT in classrooms is, however, linked to teachers' theories, beliefs, and understandings of the knowledge domain, as well as access to, and competence with, resources (Watson, 1993). …
