This study examines the potential of coating the surfaces of cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glue-laminated timber (GLT) to evaluate the impact of moisture on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete in a timber-concrete composite slab. The C30/37 strength-class concrete was poured to simulate a timber-concrete composite slab on top of CLT and GLT samples. Natural oil (NO) and a flexible two-component waterproofing slurry (WPS) were applied to the timber surface to investigate the effects of water absorption and compare them with those of uncoated timber elements. The density, strength, and surface moisture of hardened concrete were measured in the laboratory after 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. Surface moisture and moisture at a 10 mm depth in the timber were also assessed at the same intervals. Prior to pouring the concrete, the timber surface was sprayed with water to simulate rain during on-site construction. The findings revealed that, among all surface treatments tested, the WPS coating was the most effective in limiting moisture migration, reducing water ingress by approximately 2.5 times in CLT and 2.4 times in GLT after three days. This demonstrates that WPS forms a significantly more effective moisture barrier than the alternative treatments. This reduction directly enhances concrete performance: strength increased by 9.4% (CLT) and 7.8% (GLT) compared to uncoated samples. The proposed solution offers practical benefits in overcoming many challenges related to precipitation and water ingress during construction. The study provides concrete evidence that moisture management strategies are essential for the wider adoption of timber–concrete composite systems in sustainable structural design.
Choosing a financing model for the development of a traditional village as vernacular heritage that satisfies all stakeholders, including the community, is an essential yet relatively unexplored issue. This study aims to develop a support system model that accommodates stakeholders' diverse backgrounds and interests when choosing one option. The model's research approach consists of three stages. The first is an analysis of two value attributes: considerable capital expenditure, life-cycle cost, and a desirable partnership return. The second is the decision process, which develops a decision hierarchy, judgment, synthesis, and satisficing options on value criteria. The data are derived from focus groups and surveys, and the analysis employs the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and satisficing game theory methods. The third is the best-fit options process, which involves forming a coalition and analyzing the optimum payoff to reach an agreement. It requires a non-financial return to accommodate the community as a stakeholder in vernacular heritage settlement development. The results show that the proposed model increases strategic financing value, allowing stakeholders in vernacular heritage development to analyze project partnership investment options.
Effective cost management in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector faces persistent challenges due to fragmented data environments, inconsistent information structures, and limited semantic interoperability among stakeholders. Although Building Information Modelling (BIM) is widely applied for cost estimation (5D BIM), its integration into comprehensive cost management remains constrained by data discontinuities and limited reuse of structured knowledge. This study proposes an ontology-based framework for managing cost-related information in small-scale public infrastructure projects, focusing on standardized railway stations. The research methodology combines an empirical analysis of current 5D BIM practices in Germany, a narrative literature review of ontology-based approaches for construction cost estimation, and a case study of a representative railway station project. Established ontology engineering methods were adapted to define classes, properties, and taxonomies integrating product- and process-oriented perspectives. The results indicate that cost development can be structured into four phases aligned with the Level of Development (LOD) concept: Level of Geometry (LoG), Level of Information Need (LoIN), Level of Cost Item (LoCI), and Level of Work Item (LoWI). The proposed framework enables a granular allocation of costs to building components and construction works, supports structured comparisons of tendered, budgeted, and executed costs, and promotes the systematic reuse of cost-related information. To assess its practical applicability, the proposed model for cost-information and knowledge structuring was implemented for the definitive cost estimate (LOD 3). The novelty of this research lies in extending and adapting established AEC ontologies to the largely unexplored domain of small-scale railway stations. By bridging component- and activity-based cost perspectives, the research contributes to semantically enriched, interoperable cost management in public infrastructure delivery.
The research included in this Issue addresses various aspects of the resilience of the built environment, spanning a spectrum from macro-scale governance frameworks and decolonial theories to micro-scale participatory mechanisms, technological innovations and site-specific heritage studies. By integrating diverse perspectives, the collection facilitates a holistic understanding of resilience in human settlements, one that transcends physical infrastructure to encompass structural, procedural, technological, educational, perceptual and temporal dimensions. Collectively, the papers within the Special Issue underscore a definitive paradigm shift in contemporary urban planning, that is, the transition from rigid, top-down mandates toward adaptive, iterative and context-sensitive methodologies. The Issue demonstrates that in truly human-centered environments, the synthesis of lived experience, indigenous wisdom and community-acquired knowledge serves as a vital foundation for the planning and preservation of living space. When harmonized with cutting-edge technological tools, such as Urban Digital Twins and environmental performance metrics, human factors provide a robust framework for creating inclusive, safe and culturally resonant urban futures.
Cities and regions are increasingly confronted with complex social, economic, and environmental challenges that demand governance approaches capable of addressing issues across administrative boundaries. In the United Kingdom, the West Midlands conurbation exemplifies these dynamics. This study investigates how multi-level governance arrangements in the region reconstitute flexible “soft geographies” that enable territorial responses to urban challenges such as housing shortages, environmental degradation, unemployment, and inefficient public transport. The research applies the multi-level governance framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to examine institutional reforms, territorial cooperation, and public management innovations in the West Midlands. The analysis draws on the case of the West Midlands Combined Authority and Local Enterprise Partnerships, highlighting their role in cross boundary strategies for economic development, housing, transport, and environmental management. The results show that multi-level governance has enabled the development of integrated strategies that cut across conventional hard boundaries. These arrangements foster adaptive capacity by coordinating decision making, pooling resources, and aligning territorial goals with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 on sustainable cities and communities. While challenges remain regarding civic participation and the integration of environmental priorities, the study demonstrates that the evolution of soft geographies has enhanced regional resilience by providing flexible governance mechanisms to address systemic stresses and long term risks. The paper contributes to theoretical foundations of resilient and sustainable urban development by illustrating how governance reforms at metropolitan scale create enabling conditions for resilient neighborhoods. It advances the argument that resilience is not only about withstanding shocks but also about building institutional and territorial arrangements that allow cities and regions to adapt, recover, and thrive.
The architectural heritage of Lithuania Minor, historically known as East Prussia, has received significantly less scholarly attention than that of Greater Lithuania. While historians such as Vasilijus Safronovas and Silva Pocytė have examined the region’s historical development, their research has focused more on political and social contexts than on architectural or urban studies. Contributions by Martynas and Marija Purvinas and Algirdas Matulevičius have advanced knowledge of the region’s built environment, but mostly with regard to major centers such as Klaipėda, Tilsit, and Ragnit, leaving smaller towns relatively understudied. The turbulent history of Lithuania Minor – marked by wars, Nazi and Soviet occupations, and shifting regimes – resulted in the loss of many historical sources and buildings. Even so, Prussian construction practices and the use of durable materials ensured that a considerable portion of the architectural heritage has survived and remains worthy of preservation. This study focuses on the town of Pagėgiai, which grew from a small settlement into a district center during the interwar period. Its aim is to evaluate the town’s significance in regional and national contexts, analyze the development of its urban structure across different historical periods, and identify the key features of its architectural character.
Spatial efficiency in Australian towers is shaped by a multifaceted interaction of many parameters such as architectural and structural considerations. However, there are no comprehensive studies available on space utilization in Australian high-rise towers. The article addresses this gap by investigating 32 case studies. This study aims to investigate how contemporary Australian tall buildings achieve spatial efficiency by analyzing the relationship between architectural and structural parameters and internal usable area ratios. Key findings: residential function, centrally-located core layouts, and prismatic arrangements are the most widespread trends; concrete is the favored construction material, with the shear-walled frame system being the most commonly used structural system; average space efficiency is 82%, with a core-to-GFA ratio of 16%. The paper offers valuable understandings for construction experts to inform design decisions in high-rise construction projects within the Australian context.
Due to the construction industry, the climate crisis had deepest environmental impact. In addition to consuming scarce mineral-based materials, the building industry is responsible for up to 39% of global carbon dioxide emissions and the accumulation of solid waste in landfills, rivers, and seas. To cut carbon dioxide emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change on the construction industry, a new, more sustainable, and renewable production matrix must be considered. An approach is using seaweed and seagrass as bio-based materials matrix, from macroalgae or microalgae stranded on the shore or sustainable crops. Transforming algae into usable construction materials involves a process of harvesting, processing, and refining. This article has systematically reviewed the literature about advances and the potential of using marine species as construction materials matrix. To this end, this paper explores the existing literature on architectural projects and research on various species of seagrass and seaweed worldwide. This review concludes that numerous case studies of dwellings around the world have demonstrated and validated the use of seaweed for applications such as coatings, thermal insulation, and construction additives. Among the most important construction related properties of seaweed are fire resistance, low thermal conductivity, and resistance to moisture and insect damage. For instance, prototypes incorporating Neptune grass (Posidonia oceanica) exhibited a thermal conductivity of 0.044 W/m·K comparable to that of expanded polystyrene, which typically ranges between 0.035 and 0.037 W/m·K. The availability of seaweed, considered the waste that pollutes an essential part of the world's coastline, is increasing every year. Nevertheless, not all types of seaweed can be used as construction materials. For this reason, there are some challenges in creating sustainable cultivation of seaweed species, like the need for efficient methods, harvesting, and its processing. In consequence, these costs must be incorporated into the selling price. However, these difficulties do not diminish the seaweed and seagrass's potential as a renewable substitute in the production matrix of the construction industry. These challenges must be overcome before the industrial use of marine species as building materials becomes a reality. Governments must provide financial support to get these initiatives off the ground, especially in the crucial pre-competitive phases. At the same time, the development of prefabrication systems is of vital importance. These systems will enable certification and compliance with building materials regulations and pave the way for a more sustainable future for the industry. It is also necessary to establish seaweed and seagrass cultivation methods that will make the initiative sustainable in the long term, incorporating the costs associated with cultivation, harvesting, and processing into the selling price.
The human desire to fly has accompanied us throughout history, leaving evidence from the most ancient cultures. Leonardo da Vinci left us documents with designs for different devices that gave credence to the dream of flight. However, five hundred years passed before, on December 17, 1903, the Wright brothers successfully piloted an airplane. In just over a century, the evolution of this means of transportation, along with technological advances, has completely transformed the way humanity interacts, giving rise to the phenomenon of globalization. A prominent place in this panorama is occupied by airports, which technically are transportation hubs; symbolically, gateways to countries; and, buildings where one waits for connections between flights to any destination in the world. These unique venues have become icons of architecture and engineering. They seek to demonstrate their excellence to travelers, seeking rest and recreation amidst the rapid transit above the clouds. The research analyzes the evolution of these unique buildings, which have adapted their development and offerings to that of aircraft, their range, size, and speed. The causes and responses are highlighted. The changes introduced in the commitment to sustainability up to the current situation are also studied. Finally, trends in airport terminal design are summarized.
Road infrastructure is a key indicator of a country's development. Traditionally, hot dense asphalt mixtures (HMA) have been used due to their ability to withstand traffic loads and adverse weather conditions. However, a growing emphasis on sustainability in road construction drives the search for technologies that reduce environmental impact without compromising durability and safety. One solution is the incorporation of recycled rubber crumb (RRC) into asphalt mixtures, reusing tire waste and enhancing performance. This study evaluates the impact of RRC on HMA through an experimental process developed in four phases. In Phase 1, the materials used (aggregates, asphalt binder, and RRC) were collected and characterized according to INVIAS 2022 specifications. Tests were conducted on the aggregates to assess hardness, durability, cleanliness, and gradation; the asphalt binder was evaluated in terms of viscosity, penetration, and softening point. The RRC was characterized based on particle size distribution, and moisture, and fiber content. In Phase 2, conventional and RRC-modified asphalt mixture briquettes were designed and fabricated with RRC proportions of 1%, 2%, and 3% (dry process), compacted according to current regulations. Phase 3 involved the characterization of the briquettes testing rutting (INV E 756-13), moisture susceptibility (INV E 725-13), the resilient modulus (INV E 749-13), and fatigue resistance. Finally, in Phase 4, a technical and statistical analysis of the results was conducted, comparing the mechanical and functional performance of the mixtures in terms of durability, structural resistance, and behavior under environmental and load-related factors. The results indicate that the addition of 1% RRC significantly improves fatigue resistance, structural stability, and safety under wet conditions, surpassing the performance of conventional mixtures. The environmental and economic impact assessment demonstrates that the use of RRC not only extends pavement service life but also reduces tire waste and CO₂ emissions associated with virgin asphalt production, contributing to the circular economy and sustainable development. It is important to recognize some limitations in this study. The tests were carried out under controlled conditions which do not fully replicate the real conditions of the variables already mentioned. The granular material used was obtained from a quarry in the region of Tunja, Boyacá, which limits the applicability compared to material obtained from other regions with different climatic, geotechnical, or traffic characteristics. Other modification techniques besides RRC, which could offer variations in the mechanical and environmental performance of the mixtures, were not evaluated. This research did not directly quantify the environmental impact of the use of RRC through each stage of the life cycle of an asphalt pavement: it does not include an experimental or quantitative environmental evaluation. Finally, the sustainability component was developed through a referential review of updated scientific literature. This study provides scientific and applied evidence for the implementation of more sustainable technologies in road construction, establishing RRC as an effective and environmentally responsible modifier. Its alignment with international standards and its potential to optimize waste management position it as a viable strategy for modernizing flexible pavements on a global scale.
This study underscores the crucial understanding of local resource availability in circular economy models, particularly within sustainable architecture and civil engineering. The aim is to reduce waste and energy consumption and to diminish reliance on long-distance transportation, thus supporting local economic independence and resilience. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of respecting and integrating cultural heritage within architectural practices. Using a comprehensive mixed-methods approach, including literature reviews, site visits, and interviews with local stakeholders, the research focuses on Siaya County, Kenya. It examines available resources relevant to the architectural practices and climate of the Luo ethnic group. Key findings indicate that the region’s soil contains approximately 50% clay, which is essential for developing sustainable earth-building techniques. This local clay resource provides a foundation for environmentally friendly construction methods that reduce dependence on imported materials. In addition, the study identifies Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus spp., and Grevillea robusta as viable alternatives to the traditionally used Markhamia lutea timber. These species not only offer sustainable options but also enhance logistical and economic feasibility due to their local abundance. For thatching, Cymbopogon and Chrysopogon zizanioides are identified as more durable options compared to Hyparrhenia hirta, offering increased longevity and resilience in roofing materials. The study further highlights the potential of natural fibres such as Agave sisalana and sugar cane for reinforcing soil bricks, thereby enhancing the structural integrity of earth-based constructions. These findings provide sustainable and durable construction solutions that align with both local practices and resources. This research supports the integration of indigenous materials and culturally respectful architectural practices. It promotes environmentally conscious design solutions that coincide with circular economy principles, fostering cultural and environmental sustainability and promoting the resilience of local communities. By embedding these practices, the study presents a model for developing robust, locally adapted, and culturally sensitive architectural solutions that address current and future challenges in sustainable design.
In southern Thailand, the accumulation of oil palm fronds and plastic waste, particularly discarded fishing nets from local fishery and farming communities, poses significant environmental challenges due to limited large-scale recycling options. This study aims to develop innovative composite materials for architectural applications by utilizing oil palm fronds and plastic fishing net waste, thereby reducing environmental pollution and promoting sustainable waste management. The research employs an experimental approach to fabricate composite panels through a systematic formation process, followed by comprehensive testing of their physical and mechanical properties. Physical properties evaluated include density, thickness swelling, and water absorption, while mechanical properties encompass modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bonding strength (IB). The results demonstrate that incorporating plastic fishing net waste significantly enhances the composite’s density, flexural strength (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and tensile strength perpendicular to the surface. Specifically, these properties exhibit a positive correlation with the proportion of plastic fishing net waste in the composite mix, with optimal performance observed at higher plastic ratios. Conversely, thickness swelling decreases as the plastic content increases, indicating improved dimensional stability. All tested composite panel specimens meet or exceed the requirements of the Thai Industrial Standard (TIS) 876-2565 (2022) for particleboards, confirming their suitability for interior architectural applications, such as wall panels and ceiling materials. This research not only provides a sustainable solution to manage agricultural and plastic waste in southern Thailand but also contributes to the development of eco-friendly, high-performance materials for the construction industry, supporting circular economy principles and environmental conservation.
Indoor-outdoor visual connectivity studies focus on analyzing view vectors and their spatial distribution, considering the three-dimensional nature of visual perception. Typically, these studies use the observer's position as a focal point from which view vectors radiate outward. However, they often overlook the multiple positions an observer can occupy in space and the various relationships these positions create with the façade system, leading to differing visual connections to the outside environment. Specialized studies that analyze multiple observer positions provide valuable insights by mapping visual connections for each location. However, they tend to lack a singular metric to assess indoor-outdoor visual connectivity as a factor influencing visual performance in relation to the space and façade system. This article introduces the Visual Connectivity Index (VCI)—a metric designed to evaluate indoor-outdoor visual connectivity. VCI measures the relationship between a façade system and the indoor space it encloses, assessing how uniformly and seamlessly the interior connects to the exterior through the façade system while considering multiple observer positions. VCI contributes to three key areas: (1) It enables the evaluation of a façade system’s impact on visual connectivity and its interaction with enclosed space; (2) It provides a performance-based measure of visual connectivity (3) It facilitates the comparison of alternative design solutions within the framework of architectural design. By synthesizing the complex phenomenon of indoor-outdoor visual connectivity with the role of the façade in shaping this relationship, Visual Connectivity Index (VCI) presents a novel and valuable approach that has not been previously explored. To demonstrate its application, this study systematically compares the performance of 20 design alternatives across three different façade systems, resulting in a total of 60 iterations. The results indicate that VCI is sensitive to various design options, enabling a thorough evaluation of different architectural design choices.
The transformation of a vertical slum into a hybrid building in socially excluded neighbourhoods, represents a scarcely analysed approach for a building model traditionally developed outside of these areas. Furthermore, incorporating these buildings into comprehensive urban regeneration processes in large peripheral neighbourhoods can address deficiencies in infrastructure and amenities. This paper presents and analyses strategies for the physical, energy, and social transformation that aid in the regeneration of a socially excluded neighbourhood, applied to a real case study in the city of Málaga (Spain). The methodology proposes an integrated approach from the urban, architectural, and social dimensions, organised into three phases: analysis and needs, hybrid transformation, and transformation strategies. Twelve transformation strategies were found to be structured into three categories: spatial, energy improvement and new uses strategies. Spatial strategies include incorporating new semi-public spaces and reclaiming public and community spaces, distinguished either architecturally or functionally derived from new public uses. Energy transformation focuses on enhancing and incorporating passive systems, active energy input systems, and transforming the existing facade. Finally, use strategies suggest new public uses for the neighbourhood, the distribution of uses based on height, and the relationship between new uses and plazas at height.
Indonesia has set a roadmap to achieve energy-efficient buildings by 2050. This study explored potential energy demand reduction through building retrofit between 2024 and 2050, aligning with Indonesia's roadmap and Paris Agreement to promote Nearly-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) concept. This study examines the impact of combining insulation retrofitting and photovoltaic (PV) system integration on reducing energy demand in existing buildings in Indonesia, considering both the 2024 and 2050 climate conditions. Three insulating materials with a thickness of 50 mm were selected, based on their thermal properties and material cost. The selected materials were rockwool, polyisocyanurate (PIR), and aerogel board as an internal layer of the walls. In addition, an economic evaluation was conducted to compare the cost-effectiveness of the three insulation materials, assessing not only energy savings but also payback periods. The results were obtained through U-value calculation, energy simulation, Photovoltaic (PV) panels simulation and economic evaluation. From the three selected insulation materials, PIR showed the highest energy demand reduction with a reasonable payback period of 15 years. Based on the simulation, PIR potentially reduced Energy Use Intensity (EUI) by 22.5% and 29.9% in the 2024 and 2050 climate database, respectively. PV panels, particularly the 300 Wp system with a shorter payback, covered an average of 31.5% of the building's final energy demands after adding PIR as an insulation in the 2024 climate database. The combined retrofit strategy reduced the overall payback period to 8.3 years. These findings highlight the NZEB approach as a viable pathway to support Indonesia’s energy-efficient building and renewable energy targets.
Felt is one of the oldest materials used by the people of Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Mongolia. For centuries, it has served as the foundation of housing structures and a symbol of the environmental awareness of nomadic people. Despite its great environmental and technological potential, its usage in modern architecture in Kazakhstan is still limited. The purpose of the study is based on a comprehensive analysis of the characteristics and opportunities of felt as a vernacular and environmentally oriented material within the framework of architectural activity in Kazakhstan. The main focus comes down to the definition of its role in the formation of regional identity and strengthening of continuity in accordance with global trends of sustainable development. The research methodology is a theoretical qualitative analysis, which is based on the study of: scientific literature on thermal insulation, environmental and operational properties of felt; characteristics of felt (thermal conductivity, resistance to moisture, durability, etc.) according to data from scientific publications. Comparative analysis involves comparing felt with other natural and synthetic materials in terms of environmental and functional parameters, as well as studying international experience in using felt and other natural materials in architecture, followed by the adaptation of successful solutions for use in Kazakhstan. One method is to evaluate not only the strengths, but also the weaknesses, of felt as a building material. This includes identifying problems related to adapting felt to the modern architectural industry in Kazakhstan. The results of the study support the potential of felt as a sustainable material for use in architecture and design, with its key advantages including thermal conductivity, biodegradability, durability, and cultural significance. The results of the study substantiate the recommendations for the integration of felt in modern architectural activity in Kazakhstan. The use of felt in architecture can contribute both to the preservation of cultural heritage and continuity, and to the strengthening of regional identity, while conforming to the principles of ecologically oriented design, and thus to the goals of sustainable development.
The assessment of indoor thermal comfort across Africa reveals significant challenges arising from the continent’s diverse climatic conditions, infrastructural disparities, and socio-economic limitations. The absence of unified thermal comfort standards further complicates efforts to ensure adequate indoor environments, as existing regulations vary widely between countries. While some nations reference international standards like ASHRAE and ISO, many lack locally adapted guidelines that account for regional climate variations and construction practices. This study examines the current landscape of thermal comfort standards in Africa, identifies key challenges—including increasing urbanization, rising temperatures due to climate change, and inadequate building codes—and evaluates the effectiveness of existing regulations. The findings indicate that many African buildings, particularly in low-income and informal settlements, are highly susceptible to overheating, with indoor temperatures frequently exceeding comfort thresholds. To address these challenges, this study highlights the need for climate-responsive building codes, improved policy frameworks, and enhanced professional expertise in thermal comfort assessment. Strengthening regulatory guidelines, incorporating passive cooling strategies, and promoting further research on localized thermal comfort thresholds are essential steps toward creating healthier indoor environments. A comprehensive, region-specific approach is crucial to improving indoor thermal comfort, public health, and sustainable building practices across Africa.
The authors propose a handgun bulletproof load-bearing 140 mm cross-laminated timber (CLT) wall with knitted aramid (Kevlar) fabric in two layers for tangling the bullet and a reference wall without a Kevlar layer. The study compares the layers in which the added aramid sheet should be placed for northern areas to allow people to have acceptable insulated conditions in temporary houses while being protected from potential bullet external threats. Results showed that a 140 mm CLT layer with 200 mm mineral wool insulation with a Kevlar layer between the insulation layer and CLT is enough to stop the bullet if fired up to 341.6 m/s with a firearm. Perforation data for CLT material samples with various thicknesses have been collected and analyzed. A metal rod and a ruler determined the penetration depth for ogive-nose projectiles when they did not fully perforate the panel. The results show the ballistic properties of CLT material. The results will be proposed to the construction industry of wooden buildings as a bonus for those whose security is significant.
Banua layuk architecture has distinctive characteristics that describe complex architectural tectonics in both technical and artistic aspects. Tectonics is an art in construction that presents aesthetics. Discussion of architectural tectonics in banua layuk in Mamasa has not yet been done. This study aims to reveal the architectural tectonics of banua layuk and understand the value of sustainability in banua layuk's design as documentation of carpentry creativity, a wealth of Indonesian architecture that must be preserved. This study is qualitative research with a naturalistic paradigm. Data analysis was carried out by analyzing the architectural tectonics of banua layuk Mamasa, understanding the coreform and artform, and understanding the value of sustainability in banua layuk. The results of the study indicate that the tectonics of the banua layuk coreform are divided into three independent parts: the lower structure is a bar frame with a rocking construction, the middle structure is a bearing wall with a bearing wall construction, and the upper structure is a bar frame with a tie construction. While the banua layuk art form is integrated with its structural components, either in the form of artistically formed structural elements, carvings with symbolic meanings, or traditional joints that are left exposed to add to the aesthetic value of the building, these ornaments are found in the structural components of badong, paraba'ba, panulak, lentong and palelen as well as the roof frame. In addition, banua layuk Mamasa also has sustainable values, including environmentally friendly materials, structures, and constructions that are by geographical conditions, and the use of ornaments as a cultural identity that can be used in its original form or developed with a new design that is more by changing times.
Cultural heritage areas (World Heritage Sites) have long stood as prominent symbols of historical and cultural civilizations in their respective environments and today serve as a strong incentive for attracting both local and international tourists. However, the urban expansion driven by rapid population growth has led to challenges, including the differentiation of their urban fabric. This highlights an urgent need to develop these cultural and tourist urban nodes and integrate them into the urban development trends of the city. Sustainable development has become a pressing agenda for such cities to protect and revitalize cultural areas and enhance accessibility to them. The study aims to evaluate the spatial configuration of the city of Babylon (within the center of Al-Hillah city, including the World Heritage Site of Babylon) over a twenty-year period (2004-2024). The research addresses a knowledge gap: The absence of precise quantitative analysis of the study area within both local and global studies, which provides a true impression of the urban development trajectory experienced by the city over the past two decades and assesses the effectiveness of the World Heritage Site as a dynamic urban node within the city. The study applied the method of space syntax and conducted axial and segment analyses based on the city's street network data for the years 2004 and 2024, measuring Depthmap X 0.8.0 program indicators related to the research vocabularies (choice, connectivity, integration, intelligibility, synergy). The analysis results indicated that the current spatial configuration of the city achieved higher values in the choice and connectivity indicators. However, the integration indicator recorded a higher value in the past, due to the significant expansion that the center of Al-Hillah city witnessed towards the south of the historic city, while the eastern and western directions achieved medium values. This underscores the development axes that should be focused on to activate and enhance land use in the areas surrounding and adjacent to the historical site.
