The agroforestry system based on horticultural crops is economically sound providing food, timber, fuelwood, and many productive and protective benefits to farming families. Diazotrophs are nitrogen-fixing bacteria which possess the nif H gene that codes for the nitrogenase enzyme involved in the reduction of atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia. The aim of present study was to assess the diversity and functional activities of free-living culturable diazotrophic bacteria in the rhizospheric soil of citrus-poplar cropping system. Morphological, biochemical and molecular techniques were used to study the diversity of diazotrophs in the citrus–poplar cropping system. The physicochemical properties of soil were also studied using standard methods. Soil pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, ammoniacal nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen content ranged from 7.5- 8.6, 0.17-0.29 dS m -1 , 0.40-0.85%, 46-67 ppm and 35.5-48.5 ppm, respectively. Total 130 free living diazotrophs were characterized using cultural, morphological, biochemical and functional characteristics. Out of the total, 74 isolates were assessed based on amplification of two nif H ( nif H1 and nif H2) primers. The nif H positive isolates were further characterized using restriction fragment length polymorphism of 16S rDNA and the isolates were identified as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia , Stenotrophomonas rhizophila , Rhizobium spp., Pseudomonas fulva , Xanthomonas spp., Agrobacterium spp., Achromobacter spp., Ensifer adhaerens , Bacillus amyloliquefaciens , Xanthomonas theicola and Azotobacter spp. Diverse groups of diazotrophic bacteria were observed in the rhizospheric soils of citrus-poplar cropping system.
The present study was conducted to evaluate the performance of five wheat varieties (HD-2967, WH-542, DPW-621-50, HD-943 and WH-1105) under different spacing geometry (3×3, 6×1.5 and 17×1×1 m (paired row)) of already established Eucalyptus tereticornis based agroforestry system during 2013-14 and 2014-15. Significantly higher growth of E. tereticornis was recorded in 3×3 m spacing. Reduction in growth as well as yield attributes of wheat varieties was recorded under different spacing. Among different spacings with respect to different wheat varieties, the maximum grain yield (2.30 and 2.10 t ha -1 ) was recorded in var. HD-2967 which was closely followed by var. DPW-621-50 (1.70 and 1.50 t ha -1 ) and WH-542 (1.50 and 1.40 t ha -1 ) in paired row planting (17×1×1 m) of Eucalyptus during study period (2013-14 and 2014-15). On an average, highest per cent decrease in grain yield over control was recorded in var. WH-1105 (90.7 and 91.1%) under 3×3 m spacing and it followed the order: HD-943 (84.6 and 85.3%) > WH-542 (82.9 and 83.2%) > DPW-621-50 (76.7 and 75.6%) > HD-2967 (60.1 and 61.3%) during study period (2013-14 and 2014-15). The grain yield of wheat reduced significantly with the increase in age of E. tereticornis trees.
The present study was aimed to optimize productivity of teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) based agroforestry system by evaluating some above- and below-ground interactions and their effects on growth and yield of intercropped barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.). Sixteen treatment combinations comprising of four distances (D1- 1 m, D2- 2 m, D3- 3 m and D4- 4 m) away from treebase and four directions (East, West, North and South) were evaluated using Factorial Randomized Block Design with three replications. Data on light interception (Hz), plant height (cm), chlorophyll content (SPAD value), soil moisture (%) and grain yield (g m -2 ) were collected and analysed. Light interception reached at its peak at 12.00 noon and lowest at 5.00 pm. At its peak, highest light interception (1193.8 Hz) was recorded in East direction at D4 and lowest (949.0 Hz) in the West at D1. Light interception in West and North directions was statistically lower than other directions. Light interception increased with increase in distance from the tree-stem. At 30 days after sowing (DAS), tallest plants were observed in West direction (23.08 cm) and shortest in the East (20.85 cm). The plant height at D1, D2 and D4 were statistically at par. At 30 DAS, lowest chlorophyll content (25.9) was observed in East direction at D4, whereas highest at 30 DAS in the West at D1 (31.5). At 90 DAS, significantly higher chlorophyll content was recorded in West direction and lowest in the South. Plants nearer to tree-stem showed high chlorophyll content. At 90 DAS, West and North directions recorded comparatively higher soil moisture, and among distances, it was recorded highest at D1. Among directions, highest grain yield was observed in East direction (210.1 g m -2 ) and lowest in the South (206.1 g m -2 ). The grain yield increased with distance from the tree trunk and significantly higher grain yield (4.68%) was recorded at D4 as compared to D1. From the findings, it can be concluded that the teak-barley agroforestry system, despite some significant above- and below-ground interactions affecting intercrop yield, may be a potential land-use system for adoption in the semi-arid region.
Present study was conducted during 2013–15 in a seven years-old Eucalyptus based agroforestry system. In the model, Eucalyptus tereticornis was planted in three different spacings viz., 3 × 3 m, 6 × 1.5 m and 17 × 1 × 1 m (paired row), and their effect on soil nutrient status was assessed. Study recorded comparatively higher values of studied nutrients in close spacing eucalyptus plantation. Significant increase in soil organic carbon with decrease in plantation spacing of eucalyptus was observed. It was recorded maximum in 3 × 3 m, followed by 6 × 1.5 m, 17 × 1 × 1 m and control. The available soil nutrient status such as N, P and K significantly increased under different spacings of Eucalyptus in all the treatments from their initial values. Thus, the study suggested that soil nutrient status could be increased under eucalyptus based agroforestry system.
Present study was conducted to examine the effect of mulch materials on growth and quality parameters of tissue culture banana (var. Grand Naine). The experiment was conducted on land having a history of jhum cultivation, and comprised of five treatments viz., T1 (local weed), T2 (toko leaf), T3 (paddy straw), T4 (black polythene) and T5 (control) which were replicated thrice. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design. Observations on banana growth (pseudostem height (cm), pseudostem circumference (cm), number of leaves, number of suckers, 3rd leave area, average bunch weight (kg), number of hands per bunch, number of fingers per bunch, weight of finger (g)), total soluble sugars (TSS), acidity and ascorbic acid content in the fruits were recorded after fruit harvest. Mulching showed significant effect on growth attributes of banana. Maximum pseudostem circumference (29.50 cm) and plant height (92.85 cm) along with maximum bunch weight (23.00 kg), number of hands per bunch (12.71), number of fingers per bunch (154.58), finger weight (142.79 g) and TSS (20.87°B) with minimum acidity percentage (0.20) were recorded under paddy straw mulch. Mulching significantly improved the soil physical condition in terms of increased water holding capacity and a decrease in bulk density.
Acute scarcity of green fodder, crude protein deficit and high feeding cost are the major deterrents for profitable livestock production in homesteads. Cultivation of protein rich tree fodder banks is a promising option for overcoming feed deficit, but warrants further research to assess their productivity in homesteads with light and space constraints. The present study aimed to assess the forage yield and nutritive value of five fodder tree species viz ., Morus indica (mulberry), Sesbania grandiflora (agathi), Moringa oleifera (moringa), Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia) and Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra) under hedgerow planting (45 × 45 cm spacing) in the interspaces of homegarden, in randomized block design replicated four times. The trees were harvested at 1 m height at the interval of two months during rainy season and three months during summer. Initial growth and coppice parameters were better for gliricidia, followed by agathi and calliandra. The annual green and dry forage yields were better for gliricidia (26.82 and 5.38 Mg ha-1) and calliandra (21.08 and 6.61 Mg ha-1), respectively. Gliricidia and calliandra had higher protein content and leaf-stem ratio. Agathi and mulberry showed intermediate performance with respect to yield and quality. Moringa was inferior in forage yields but rich in quality attributes like ash and mineral contents. Mulberry and calliandra showed better survival percentage. Hence, gliricidia, calliandra, and mulberry with good yield and quality are found to be ideal for hedgerow planting in the understorey of homesteads. PAR transmittance in the homestead was below 60% indicating shady nature. Pruning of overhead trees in homesteads to enhance light transmission can further elevate the yield levels of fodder banks.
Studies on impact of neem plantation on soil properties was initiated in 4-and 8-year-old neem plantations at two different sites. An increase in organic carbon, available N, P and K was 0.11%, 38.90 kg ha -1 , 5.14 kg ha -1 and 62.55 kg ha -1 , respectively under 4-year-old neem plantation over control (without tree) after 3 years and increase was 0.18 %, 35.75 kg ha -1 , 3.96 kg ha -1 and 67.55 kg ha -1 for organic carbon, available N, P and K, respectively under 8- year-old plantation. The increment in organic carbon and available N, P and K was lower in 15-30 cm soil depth compared to 0-15 cm. The soil pH was slightly lower in both the plantations in compare to control.
Various forms of agroforestry practice are prevalent in different agro-climatic regions of India. They occupy sizeable area in the country that is yet to be estimated accurately. Geospatial technologies have the potential for mapping and delineating agroforestry area for large geographical extent whether region or country. Since agroforestry comprises of trees, crops, grasses and many more components, so there are some problems in mapping which are highlighted in this article. Besides this, methodology has been proposed for mapping agroforestry area using medium resolution (LISS III) remote sensing data. Area under agroforestry in Ludhiana district was estimated using medium resolution (LISS III) and high resolution (LISS IV) data and pixel based classification method.By this method, area under agroforestry was estimated to 14.87, 5.56 per cent in case of LISS IV and LISS III data, respectively. Sub-pixel classifier was also applied on medium resolution (LISS III) data and the results were compared. In this case, area under agroforestry was estimated to be 14.91 per cent, which is almost same as that of result obtained with LISS IV data. Thus, result obtained by sub-pixel classification of medium resolution data are as good as obtained by pixel based classification of high resolution data. Hence, proposed methodology may be used for accurate assessment of area under agroforestry in India.
The present study was conducted to investigate the suitability of lingo-cellulosic particles of Prosopis cineraria (Khejri) as raw material for fabrication of particle boards. The particle boards were made using 8, 10 and 12% Phenol Formaldehyde resin and subsequently hot pressed at 21 kg cm−2 for 12 minutes. The physical and mechanical properties of the particle boards hence formed, met the requirements of Indian Standard specification IS: 3087 (1985) at different resin contents. However, the swelling of the board was found to be higher than the specified limit as per Indian Standard IS: 3087 at 8 and 10% resin contents which can be further controlled by seizing it with paraffin wax. Boards made with 12% resin content met with the requirements of the standard. The percentage of resin used in manufacturing the particle boards had some notable impacts on improving the mechanical and physical properties of the board. The results of the study indicated in favour of utilisation of lops and tops (lingo-cellulosic particles) of P. cineraria for its efficient use for the fabrication of particle boards at 12% resin content.
Intensive survey of Northern India and southwestern region of Nepal was conducted during January-February, 1998 in order to select plus trees of shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.). Sixty-three plus trees were selected on the basis of good height, diameter, clear bole (without forking), stein straightness, aggressively apical dominance, compact crown, low branch angle and resistant to pest and diseases. Plus trees of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. were found much more straight and tall up to 37.4 m in Sirsa-Dabwali (Haryana), Tanakpur (U.P.) and Dhangarhi (Nepal). Significant differences were observed between progenies of different origins as well as among progenies of same origin for growth characters and stem form at the age of 15 months after transplanting. Ample genetic variations were observed for total height, unforked height and basal diameter and stem straightness in 63 progenies of Dalbergia sissoo at the age of 15 months after transplanting. Heritability estimates in broad sense as well as genetic advance were high for all the characters under study. Heritability estimates in narrow sense by parents-offspring regression method were also high for straightness and unforked height. Five progenies of plus trees viz. PT28 and PT12 from Haldwani, PT283 from Gonda, PT84 from Nepal and PT9 from Tanakpur were found most promising for straightness, basal diameter, total height and unforked height. Progenies of PT27 and PT25 from Haldwani, PT80 from Sirsa, PT8 from Tanakpur and PT56 from Fatehpur were also found superior for most of the characters. Progenies of plus trees from Haldwani, Tanakpur and Sirsa were in general found promising. Progenies of plus trees viz., PT28, PT12, PT27, PT22 and PT25 from Haldwani, PT9 and PT8 from Tanakpur, PT283 from Gonda, PT84 from Nepal, PT80 from Sirsa arid PT56 from Fatehpur showed consistently superior performance starting from nursery up to 15 months after transplanting in the field.
The goals of agricultural sustainability and disseminating agroforestry to smallholders cannot be achieved without taking women's vital roles into consideration and empowering them to play crucial role in the developmental processes. Complex array of socioeconomic-cultural factors and myths determine gender inequalities in projects relating to natural resource management including agroforestry. Empowering women to manage trees on farm, choose preferred species, have right to harvesting and processing of produce by breaking existing social barriers and myths, may generate self-esteem and enable them to own agroforestry on their farms. Hence, this article is aimed to understand the reasons and myths of gender inequality in agroforestry, the needs to empower women for scaling up agrofroestry, and also share some experiences on gendered management of agroforestry plantations in Bundelkhand region of central India. The experiences of working with farm families in selected villages of Bundelkhand region revealed that the social myths are far from the realities and women are playing key role in fostering concepts of “ladko ko khet, ladkiyon ko med aur har med par 100 saagon ke ped”, homeyard gardens for nutritional security of children and family members, and silvi-pasture (perennial grasses on farm-bunds) for regular supply of fodder for farm-cattle. These concepts also spelled out how gender specific management can be crucial for empowering farm women. The sense of owing materials and assets build self confidence in women which further enthuses them to enrich their knowledge and skills. It also enables women to generate their creativity, strengthen capacity to think, be decisive, and act in right perspective.
A study was carried out during 2018-19, to know the influence of bund planted neem with pigeonpea on soil biochemical properties in semi-arid tropics of Karnataka, India. The results revealed significant positive improvement in soil biochemical properties in neem-based bund planting as compared to control (without trees). Significantly higher soil organic carbon content, available N, P and K (0.46%, 239, 18 and 225 kg ha -1 , respectively) were recorded on Western direction of North-South planting as compared to other direction, and significantly higher organic carbon, available N, P and K (0.54% 265, 19.4 and 242 kg ha -1 , respectively) were recorded near tree line which decreased with increase in distance from the tree line. Similarly, significantly higher organic carbon, available N, P and K (0.56% 273, 20.1 and 251 kg ha -1 , respectively) were recorded on Western direction near tree line. The analysis of microbial population and dehydrogenase activity revealed similar trend and significantly higher population of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes and dehydrogenase activity (85.3 ×10 6 , 56.7 ×10 3 , 36.5 ×10 2 cfu g -1 and 30.2 μg TPF g -1 , respectively) were recorded on Western direction near tree line and were decreased with increase in distance from the tree line. Bund planting improved soil bio-chemical properties when compared with control. Further, positive influence of trees up to an extant of 16 m was noticed. Hence, it is suggested to have bund planting of neem at intervals of 20 m distance in the field.
The demand for wood and wood products in India is increasing at an alarming rate. This demand is accelerated due to population explosion, urbanization, industrialization and the associated science and technological advancements. The low forest cover, restricted supply of wood from natural forests coupled with policy and legal compulsions have also reduced the supply from existing forest resources and directed to promote agroforestry and gained significant attention and attraction across the country. Though agroforestry is a traditional practice, its realization for commercial and industrial utility is of recent origin and practiced by wide range of stakeholders. However, for want of suitable institutional mechanism coupled with technological interventions, the achievement in agroforestry promotion is dismally modest. Under such circumstances, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has conceived and implemented contract farming models specific to various wood based industries like pulp and paper, plywood, dendro biomass and match wood industries. Currently, the research team has conceived a contract farming model for plywood industries and implemented it in association with two major plywood industries in Tamil Nadu, India. This contract farming model has been implemented by incorporating technological, organizational and marketing interventions. The development and deployment of new and alternate species, high yielding short rotation clones, precision silviculture practices and multifunctional agroforestry models have realised increased productivity in a short duration which attracted several farmers towards organised plywood farming. The assurance of buyback, price support system, felling and transportation facility coupled with institutional credit and insurance programme are some salient features of this model and extend greater scope of adoption not only within the region but also across the country.
The basic precept of agroforestry is its ability to maintain fertility of poor soil. Researchers always try to assess how different nutrients present in soil respond to the age levels and practices on tree and crop cultivation, and effect of application of different organic manures and biofertilizers to intercrops. Present study, aiming to assess the effect of different age levels and practices on rubber plant and nutrient management on bird's eye chilli (BEC) on soil fertility status, was carried out. The age of rubber plantation and practices followed on rubber significantly influenced soil parameters. The plots treated with combined application of FYM, Azotobacter and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) registered highest values in terms of soil physical and chemical properties. Interactions were non-significant for most of the soil parameters. Thus, combined use of FYM, Azotobacter and PSB on BEC under organic practice on rubber in two-years old rubber plantation proved better in improving soil fertility under agroforestry system.
The present study was conducted to evaluate the performance of three wheat varieties under different spacing geometry (3×3, 4×3, 5×3, 6×3, 7×3 and 8×3 m) of already established two-years old poplar plantation during 2018–19. Growth of poplar was found significantly higher in 3×3 m spacing. Growth and yield attributing parameters of wheat varieties (WH1105, HD-2967 and WH-711) were reduced significantly under different spacing geometry of poplar plantation in comparison to sole crop. The maximum grain yield (4.68 t/ha) was recorded in variety HD-2967, followed by WH-711 (4.25 t/ha) in wider spacing (8×3 m) of poplar. On an average, the highest per cent reduction in grain and straw yield over control was recorded in variety WH-1105 (23.9 and 18.2%), followed by WH-711 (16.02 and 17.01%) and HD-2967 (10.7 and 11.69%) under 3×3 m spacing. The rate of decrease in straw yield was comparatively lower than grain yield under different spacing of poplar. The overall reduction in grain and straw yield was more under 3×3 m.
Agroforestry is a dynamic and natural resource management system that integrates trees on farms for productive and protective purposes for sustaining livelihood. India is often described as the cradle of agroforestry in recognition of its long history of the practice of an array of systems under diverse agro-ecological conditions. Agroforestry is much more important in state like Haryana as evident from FSI Report (2019) stating that forest and tree cover of the state increased to 6.6% of its geographical area. The forest area of the state is 3.6% of its geographical area and the remaining about 3% area is under agroforestry in farmlands due to higher adoption of poplar and eucalyptus based agroforestry systems in the state. The present article highlights the importance of agroforestry and development of suitable agroforestry models for Haryana and the way forward to increase tree cover in the state.
This paper deals with biomass, productivity and carbon efficiency of agri-horticulture system of Shiwalik plain of Central Himalaya. The study was conducted in mango-based agroforestry system with two different cropping pattern i.e. mango (Mangifera indica) + wheat (Triticum aestivum) and mango + black bhatt (Glycine max). The cereal crop (wheat) and pulse crop (black bhatt) were cultivated under mango trees in winter and rainy seasons, respectively. The biomass and productivity of fruit tree component was estimated by using the regression equation of respective component. The carbon potential was determined by using standard factor. The above-ground biomass and carbon stock was maximum (127 t ha−1 and 60.3 t C ha−1) in mango+wheatas compared to mango+black bhatt (123 t ha−1 and 58.4 t C ha−1). The wheat and black bhatt under mango-based agri-horticulture system shared 4.3 and 1.2% of the total biomass and carbon stock of agroforestry system which was less than sole system (i.e. 6.24 and 1.58 t ha−1 biomass and 2.96 and 0.75 t C ha−1 carbon stock). Net primary productivity and carbon sequestration of mango was 16.09 t ha−1 yr−1 and 7.64 t C ha−1 yr−1, while long lived carbon storage, heat from biomass combustion and carbon storage from coal substitute was 10.90 t C ha−1, 1235.2 x 109 J t−1 and 20.75 t C ha−1, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that biomass production and carbon potential varied with cropping system or crop combination. Moreover, the agroforestry system has high potential of biomass productivity and carbon efficiency than sole system. Therefore, the adoption of such land-uses is not only more profitable to the growers but also plays a significant ecological role in terms of carbon mitigation.
Melia dubia is gaining popularity in Gujarat and farmers of the state are integrating various understory crops in M. dubia-based agroforestry. Present study which consisted of seven treatments viz., L1-M. dubia (2×2 m) + Aloe vera, L2-M. dubia (3×2 m) + A. vera, L3-M. dubia (4×2 m) + A. vera, L4-A. vera sole, L5-M. dubia (2×2 m) sole; L6-M. dubia (3×2 m) sole and L7-M. dubia (4×2 m) sole was aimed to assess best spatial arrangement of M. dubia for A. vera. Among various treatments, on account of fresh A. vera leaf, baby plant and M. dubia wood production, highest net return of Rs. 3, 36, 360 ha −1 (benefit-cost ratio (BCR) 3.04) was obtained from L. On account of fresh A. vera pulp, baby plant and M. dubia wood production, the highest net return of Rs. 7, 44, 560 ha−1 (BCR 3.82) was also accrued from L1. However, M. dubia (4x2 m) sole cropping gave maximum BCR (3.71) among all land-use systems considering A. vera fresh leaf production in to account. The value addition due to pulp production provided higher net returns and BCR under all the systems. The net present value (NPV), internal rate of returns (IRR@10%), payback period (PBP) and BCR analysis expressed that among M. dubia-A. vera silvi-medicinal and sole cropping systems (either A. vera or M. dubia), the most economically viable systems could be M. dubia (2×2 m) + A. vera system. The economic analysis underpinned that NPV, IRR, PBP and BCR values are lesser on raw product (fresh A. vera leaf) production compared to pulp production.
Bamboos are large woody grass, belonging to the family Poaceae and sub-family Bambusoideae, much known for its contribution to the environment. But, the food perspective of bamboo shoots remains unexplored and also the literature on nutritional and medicinal potential of bamboo shoots is limited. This review article provides insight into the bamboo shoot as a substitute food source. Bamboos possess essential amino acids, selenium, antioxidant and mineral nutrients. The presence of cyanogenic glycoside in raw bamboo shoots and its effect on human health has implied for innovative processing techniques using systematic inputs for the elimination of toxic compounds without interrupting the nutrients. The article further discusses the potential responsibility of agroforestry in enhancing edible bamboo production and the productivity of various edible bamboos incorporated under agroforestry models, and precautions in handling bamboo shoots. Lastly, the article also reviewed the utilization of bamboo shoots for certain ailments and also regarding the opportunities for value addition along with future scenario for establishing efficient international marketing benefits by making bamboo shoot products available to much potential and eventual trade inside and outside the country, laterally with food security and nutrition.
Agroforestry has gained enormous popularity and limelight in the recent decades. The synergic action of carbon sequestration and environmental resilience associated with these systems has elicited its worldwide adoption, as it's a simple yet effective elixir to the myriad of environmental and social problems faced in the present era. It's a realistic solution to the major sustainable development goals framed by United Nations where developing countries are given equal concern. To embrace these goals, it demands the sustainable intensification and commercialisation of traditional agroforestry through scientific transformation. To achieve this, managing agroforestry components like trees and crops are quintessential, thereby upgrading traditional agroforestry systems in addressing food security, rural poverty, biodiversity conservation, protecting watershed services, wood demand and resilience to climate change. Although various management practices are adopted in agroforestry systems at farmer level, there is a dearth of sufficient research back up to examine the effect of these practices. In order to address these research gaps, this paper critically discusses the various management practices which can be deliberately incorporated into traditional agroforestry systems to enhance the system productivity, concurrently uplifting the socio-economic status of farmers ensuring nutritional security and thus empowering agroforestry systems with a much more promising future.
