English proficiency is central to aviation safety, yet the pedagogical relationship between General English (GE) and Aviation English (AE) remains insufficiently examined in EFL contexts. This qualitative study investigates how 34 Iranian cockpit and cabin crew members perceive the functions of GE and AE in their professional communication. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis to identify recurring patterns in participants’ experiences. The findings indicate a clear functional distinction supported by consistent reports across participants. GE was frequently associated with handling unexpected situations, clarifying misunderstandings, and maintaining interpersonal interaction, while AE, aligned with ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements, was viewed as essential for accuracy, brevity, and safety in routine operational exchanges. Most participants emphasised that reliance on memorised AE phraseology without sufficient GE competence reduced communicative flexibility in non-standard scenarios. The results point to the need for a more integrated TEFL–ESP approach. Participants highlighted the value of communicative and task-based instruction, blended learning, and short, focused activities that connect everyday English with aviation phraseology. These findings suggest that strengthening GE alongside AE can better prepare aviation personnel for both routine procedures and unexpected communication demands
This study investigated the word associative behavior of Iraqi EFL leaners to expand the current understanding of different types and classifications of the responses to word association tests (WATs) held with the help of AI. The participants’ response behavior was investigated based on the response forms (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions), categories (syntagmatic, paradigmatic, encyclopedic and clang), and quality (concrete versus abstract), regarding the possible role of gender. Besides, the differences in responses considering language proficiency were investigated. Eighty-one 19- to 26-year-old adults (36 males and 45 females), studying in different branches of medicine with two levels of English proficiency (upper intermediate and advanced) were chosen randomly. In this correlational study, after checking their proficiency with the Quick Oxford placement test (QOPT), a word association test, inspired by Wolter’s (2002) and designed by AI, was administered. For both male and female learners, a consistent pattern was observed across response forms and categories with no significant variation in the distribution of responses. Besides, for both genders, the frequency of the abstract responses was more than the concrete ones. Finally, both advanced and upper-intermediate participants exhibited a stable pattern across response categories, with syntagmatic responses being the most frequent. The result revealed that both gender and proficiency may not play any major role in influencing the participants’ word associative behavior in response to AI-generated stimuli. The findings have implications for the sequence of teaching vocabulary items.
Global English language teaching (ELT) textbooks function not only as linguistic resources but also as sites where market-oriented identities and cultural imaginaries are made available to learners. Although critical ELT scholarship has examined neoliberalism in textbook materials, less attention has been paid to how discourses are realized across proficiency levels within a global series and how learners in under-researched EFL settings interpret them. This qualitative study examines neoliberal subject positions in Speakout (3rd ed., A1–B2+) as used in Iranian private institutes, alongside interviews with six male Iranian learners aged 16–19. Textbook data was sampled purposively across the proficiency levels, with attention to unit topics, dialogues, reading and listening texts, task instructions, visuals, and Future Skills sections. The analysis combined codes from neoliberalism and governmentality with coding of representational patterns. Following Fairclough’s (2001) critical discourse analysis, the study moved from description of textual and visual features—lexis, modality, evaluation, agency, scenario design, and image–text relations—to interpretation of discourse practices and explanation in relation to the Iranian ELT context. The findings identify four recurrent discourse clusters: Consumer participation and branding, employability and entrepreneurial selfhood, individualized achievement, and Western-coded lifestyle/mobility as cultural capital. Interview data indicate selective uptake rather than internalization: Learners often framed English as a resource for education, mobility, and income while questioning luxury consumption and some Western-centric norms. The study contributes an empirically grounded account of how global ELT materials normalize market-oriented subject positions and argues for critical textbook literacy in teacher education and materials evaluation.
The growth of using Artificial intelligence (AI) programs in learning languages is undeniable, but the question is if all learners with wide range of individual differences can benefit these tools. This study aims to explore the effect of Artificial intelligence-assisted collaborative tasks on Iranian EFL learners' communicative proficiency, with specific focus on how different levels of critical thinking moderates this effect. The present study employs a quai-experimental design with pre-test and post-test structure. 80 female learners of the age of 13 - 17 who processed intermediate level of English were selected out of 150 learners in Top Notch classes of a private language institute through an English proficiency test (PET) in advance, were divided based on their different level of critical thinking via Facione 2011 critical thinking skills test to low, moderate and high. Learners of every level of critical thinking were randomly divided into an experimental and a control group, thus six groups were formed. The participants in the experimental groups were given AI-mediated collaborative tasks but the participants in the control groups were given regular traditional tasks. After comparing the results of the pre-tests to the post-tests the results support the fact that the use of AI-assisted collaborative tasks had positive impact on communicative proficiency of learners in all levels of critical thinking also established the higher the level of the critical thinking, the bigger the improvement of communicative proficiency. This paper is useful for teachers, professors, syllabus designers and even parents in schools, institutes and universities.
Autonomy is an important concept in education. It is a multi-faceted trait. The present study examined various aspects of autonomy, specifically, cognitive, interpersonal, institutional, and technological, within English language learning settings in both state schools and private language institutes. A questionnaire was developed, drawing on key concepts from Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and previous surveys by Borg and Al Busaidi (2012) and Murase (2015). The questionnaire was tested for reliability and factorability before being administered to 400 participants, which included 100 teachers from state schools, 100 from private language institutes, as well as 100 senior high school students and 100 intermediate-level students enrolled in private institutes. The aim was to see how learners and educators perceive and experience autonomy across different educational environments. The findings indicated notable differences in the perception and application of autonomy, with participants from private language institutes reporting a greater sense of autonomy in their learning practices compared to those in state schools. This study enhances our understanding of learner autonomy and offers insights that could guide future teaching strategies in varying educational contexts. The implications for curriculum development and teacher training are also addressed.
The integration of interactive educational tools, like VoiceThread (VT), into new educational settings, like small private online courses (SPOCs), while offering substantial benefits, can introduce less explored drawbacks, including stressors associated with social network sites (SNSs). This study addresses this gap by investigating the implementation of VT within flipped SPOCs, focusing on its impact on language learners' perceived SNS stressors encompassing three subcomponents: social overload, system feature overload, and information overload. Through a quantitative quasi-experimental method, 79 learners were assigned to flipped SPOC language classes (two experimental and two control classes due to SPOC size limitations). As the experimental group, 40 learners applied the Telegram platform to receive instructions while using VT to practice speaking. In the control group, 39 learners employed only Telegram to receive instruction and also practice speaking. The participants' perceived SNS stressors were assessed by questionnaires. The results indicated a significant multivariate difference between the experimental and control groups on perceived SNS stressors, with the experimental group reporting significantly higher social overload. No statistically significant differences were found for system feature overload or information overload. The findings suggest that the observed difference is primarily in the social dimensions of learner stress. All stakeholders within education may benefit from these findings
Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) is vital for effective instruction, but its development is often limited by institutional policies and a lack of contextualized professional development. Although information and communication technology (ICT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) provide new avenues for nurturing reflective practice and fostering LAL, their influence across various instructional contexts remains underexplored. This qualitative, multiple case study explores how incorporating ICT and AI-driven reflective practices impacts the LAL of EFL teachers, comparing experiences in young-learner (YL) and adult-learner (AL) contexts in Iran. Data from post-observation discussions, classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and narrative frames from 12 teachers revealed that both groups faced similar limitations from institutional policies, which restricted their assessment agency and reflective practice. Nevertheless, key differences emerged: YL teachers mainly required material and technological affordances to support multimodal, age-appropriate assessment, whereas AL teachers highlighted the need for conceptual tools and professional development to leverage data-informed, reflective practices. The study concludes that targeted teacher education, integrating AI-driven reflective systems and digital assessment tools, can allow teachers to explore institutional limitations and develop their LAL in ways that are responsive to the particular sociocultural and developmental needs of their learners.
Classroom management remains a central yet conceptually multifaceted dimension of effective teaching, particularly in high school EFL contexts characterized by linguistic, behavioral, and institutional complexity. While prior research has extensively examined classroom management strategies, comparatively limited attention has been given to how teachers themselves conceptualize and enact classroom management in situated practice. This qualitative interpretivist study explores EFL high school teachers’ perceptions of classroom management and the challenges they encounter in their daily professional contexts. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 21 purposively selected EFL high school teachers working in public secondary schools in Mahabad and Orumiyeh, Iran. The interview data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. The findings suggest that teachers conceptualize classroom management as a proactive, relational, and experience-based process shaped by student motivation, institutional constraints, and accumulated professional knowledge. Experienced teachers reported greater reliance on adaptive and preventive strategies, whereas less experienced teachers demonstrated stronger dependence on rule-based and reactive approaches. The study contributes to teacher cognition research by positioning classroom management as a form of situated pedagogical judgment rather than a fixed repertoire of techniques. Implications are discussed for teacher education and professional development in EFL settings.
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in education is reshaping pedagogical approaches, offering new avenues for personalized learning. This study investigates the motivational role of ChatGPT in English Language Teaching (ELT) by comparing perceptions of 33 instructors and 215 secondary school students in Iran. A quantitative, descriptive-comparative analysis revealed significant agreement that ChatGPT enhances intrinsic motivation, particularly by fostering learning interest, autonomy, and enjoyment. Both groups concurred that the tool is most effective for text-based skills like vocabulary, grammar, reading, and writing, but less so for oral-aural skills. A key divergence emerged, however, as students perceived a significantly greater benefit for vocabulary and grammar acquisition than teachers did. The findings affirm ChatGPT's considerable promise as a motivational tool in ELT. However, they also underscore that its effective integration requires a strategic pedagogy. This approach must leverage its strengths in literacy and learner independence while simultaneously addressing its limitations in fostering oral communication through complementary instructional support. The results provide valuable insights for educators and policymakers seeking to implement AI tools in a contextually aware and pedagogically sound manner. ChatGPT; Learning Motivation; ELT, Teacher Perceptions; Learner Perceptions
The seemingly arbitrary nature of word meanings has long hindered the development of effective channels for vocabulary learning in a non-native language. This study compares enactment-based and explanation-based instructional methods in raising learners’ awareness of metaphorical motivation behind a set of word meanings, and their subsequent effect on medium-term retention and long-term reproduction of figurative senses. A convenience sample of 60 EFL students were divided into two groups. Subsequently, they underwent metaphor awareness training in which the researcher provided either physical enactments or verbal explanations. In addition to administering pretests, two delayed posttests were conducted to assess the comprehension and production of the target words at one-week and one-month intervals, respectively. Overall, the instruction based on teacher-centered verbal explanations showed significant improvements in participants’ receptive and productive knowledge of the words in their metaphorical senses. Likewise, the implementation of enactment-based activities yielded significant improvements in their comprehension and production of the metaphorical uses of the words. Further analysis indicated that whereas physically enacting the literal senses of the words was more effective for their metaphorical comprehension, the intervention based on verbal explanations had a significantly stronger effect on their reproduction.
In the SLA context, Immunity is considered a defense mechanism against stressful situations. Some researchers have claimed that the maladaptive immunity of teachers can be transformed into productive immunity through pre-and in-service training of teachers. This study aimed to examine the effect of in-service training on teachers’ immunity levels and to determine whether the pre-service training has any effect on the immunity development among teachers. Participants of this study (N=46) were selected by convenience sampling from private institutes in Zanjan, Tabriz, and Urmia, Iran. They were divided into two groups, non-EFL teachers (10 Male, 10 Female) and EFL teachers (13 Male, 13 Female), receiving 5 training sessions on affective strategies, preceded and followed by the Language Teacher Immunity Questionnaire developed by Hiver (2017). The results showed a significant development of the immunity level among both groups of participants. Moreover, it was stated that pre-service training had no impact on the in-service training that EFL teachers received. As a result, in-service training programs have to pay more attention to teacher immunity and strategies to deal with stressful situations that teachers normally face, regardless of teachers’ background knowledge about the field.
Online collaborative writing is an effective method in higher education, fostering interaction and shared responsibility in academic writing. Despite the growing demand for research publications, doctoral students majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) often struggle with writing research article abstracts due to challenges in organizing their content, developing their structure, and choosing the correct language. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, which highlights fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness and incorporating genre-based principles, the present study developed an online collaborative academic writing course designed to enhance abstract writing performance. This 10-session online intervention was run for 40 TEFL doctoral candidates using Adobe Connect for synchronous teaching and Google Docs for asynchronous tasks. Using a quantitative experimental design, the study employed t-tests to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional course. The results revealed a statistically significant improvement in participants’ abstract writing performance following the intervention. These findings demonstrate the value of integrating technology-mediated writing instruction into teacher education and highlight the importance of fostering collaborative learning through digital platforms. Overall, the study provides practical insights for teacher trainers, professors, and researchers seeking to improve academic writing instruction in TEFL contexts.
Despite the recognized importance of critical thinking (CT) in EFL instruction, teachers often struggle to identify and respond to CT moments in real-time classroom interactions. This gap between theory and practice underscores a need for targeted professional development. This study represents the first investigation of how a structured video tagging program, grounded in Jewell's Reasoning Taxonomy, enhances experienced EFL teachers' noticing and interpretation of learners' CT behaviors. Using a mixed-methods design, thirty experienced EFL teachers (5+ years' experience) completed a six-week program and were divided into experimental (video tagging) and control groups. Data from pre/post tagging tasks and semi-structured interviews were analyzed quantitatively and thematically. The experimental group showed a significant increase in both the quantity and interpretive quality of identified CT instances compared to the control group. Teachers developed a more nuanced understanding, shifting from superficial behavioral descriptions to detailed analyses of student reasoning processes like inference, evaluation, and problem-solving. The findings advocate for integrating such explicit noticing tasks into teacher training curricula to bridge the gap between CT theory and classroom practice, ultimately enriching pedagogical reasoning and fostering more adaptive, responsive teaching.
The present qualitative study examined the practices of in-service and retired English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in public and private schools to provide a comprehensive understanding of their pedagogical approaches. The researchers used a multi-faceted data collection strategy, including semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and classroom observations, providing an in-depth exploration of the constructs that influence teaching practices. 40 EFL teachers from public schools and educational institutions participated in this study. All participants provided informed consent before their involvement in the study. The researchers used MAXQDA software 24 and thematic analysis to analyze the collected data. The findings highlighted the significance of promoting student agency, social transformation, cultural relevance, emotional ecology, critical reflection, ethical decision-making, collegiality and collaboration, and feedback and communication. These constructs collectively demonstrated how teachers provide supportive and engaging learning environments that empower students and promote active participation in their educational journeys. The findings have pedagogical implications for teachers, learners, curriculum designers, and policy makers.
This mixed‑methods study examined the effects of AI‑assisted blended self- and peer‑assessment on the writing performance and motivation of 80 intermediate Iranian EFL learners, while also exploring the mediating role of introversion/extroversion. Participants from a language institute in Babol were divided into two experimental and two control groups. Over 12 sessions, the experimental groups received AI‑supported feedback within a process‑based writing approach, whereas the control groups followed conventional instruction. Quantitative results showed that the experimental groups significantly outperformed the control groups in both writing and motivation. However, no significant interaction was found between treatment and personality type, indicating that both introverts and extroverts benefited equally. Qualitative data revealed benefits such as better revision quality, increased autonomy, and higher engagement, alongside challenges like concerns about feedback reliability and peer evaluation quality. Overall, the findings support the integration of AI‑assisted blended self‑ and peer‑assessment as an effective formative assessment tool for enhancing writing skills and motivation across different personality styles in EFL contexts.
This study examined the effects of gamified-collaborative, gamified, and collaborative writing instruction on Iranian EFL learners’ writing development using Classcraft. Ninety-six intermediate learners from four classes at a private language institute in Urmia were selected through convenience sampling and assigned to four groups: a Gamified–Collaborative Instruction Group (GCIG), a Gamified Instruction Group (GIG), a Collaborative Instruction Group (CIG), and a Control Group (CG). All participants completed a pretest to establish homogeneity in writing proficiency, assessed using an analytic writing rubric. The experimental groups received their treatments over 16 sessions, while the control group received traditional instruction. A writing posttest was administered at the end of the intervention. Quantitative data were analyzed through one-way ANOVA and paired-samples t-tests. The results indicated that all three instructional approaches significantly improved learners’ writing performance. However, the gamified–collaborative approach demonstrated the greatest effectiveness, followed by gamified instruction and collaborative instruction. These findings highlight the pedagogical value of integrating game-based elements and collaborative learning to enhance EFL writing outcomes. The study has certain implications for syllabus designers since it underscores Classcraft’s potential as a digital platform for fostering meaningful writing development among Iranian EFL learners.
This study investigates the relationships between EFL learners' development of cultural identity (CI), critical thinking (CT), and critical writing (CW). Based on theories that connect identity, cognition, and language production, the study examines how these concepts affect students' capacity to write logical persuasive texts Participants included 32 undergraduate students majoring in English Literature selected via convenience sampling from an intact “Novel 1” course. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative data from reflective writing samples with quantitative instruments (the Cultural Identity and Cultural Internalization Questionnaire, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, and pre- and post-intervention critical writing tasks). The predictive power of CI, CT, and pre-intervention CW performance on post-intervention CW scores was evaluated using multiple regression analysis. The regression model explained approximately 69.2% of the variance in critical writing performance, which showed significant positive relationships among the variables. The best predictor was critical thinking, which was followed by cultural identity and previous writing experience. The results demonstrate how CI and CT support one another in the development of argumentative writing abilities. The study recommends the incorporation of critical thinking and culturally relevant content for EFL teachers and curriculum developers.
This study investigates the efficacy of Speechify, an AI voice assistant, in aiding reading comprehension among adult EFL learners with dyslexia. Using a qualitative research design, this study explored how Speechify influenced perceived reading comprehension, reduced anxiety, and increased motivation over the course of 12 sessions of a reading workshop involving 16 dyslexic EFL learners. The validated Adult Dyslexia Checklist was used to identify participants with moderate-to-severe dyslexic profiles. The semi-structured interviews provided qualitative data and thematic analysis was used to code, organize and identify the themes. The results indicated that the use of Speechify auditory support generally improved dyslexic learners' EFL reading comprehension. The key themes that emerged included the impact of multimodality on student learning and teacher confidence, exploration of identity and agency, and the need for more personalized learning experiences. Findings suggest that AI tools can lower affective filters that complicate language learning for neurodivergent learners, although objective literacy gains were not assessed. The findings suggest that Speechify can be a disruptive, compensatory AI tool in education for those with language-learning difficulties.
EFL teachers have encountered learners with xenoglossophobia for many years. This establishes the urge to shed light on the components of this complication. This study elucidated the constituents of this language related anxiety and the subsequent (mal)adaptive coping strategies employed by Iranian EFL learners. A comprehensive Systematic Literature Review (SLR) was conducted, incorporating 1119 qualitative and quantitative studies to identify the components contributing to this phobia. Subsequently, a series of focus group interviews were conducted with 96 Iranian EFL learners to gain insights into their (mal)adaptive xenoglossophobia regulating strategies. The components were validated through Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) using the developed scale for 349 available Iranian EFL learners. Also, the interviews were thematically analyzed. The findings indicated cognitive, emotional, behavioral, environmental, cultural, technological, and learning variables as significant contributors to this complication. Moreover, adaptive coping strategies included mindfulness, cognitive reframing, seeking support, and using Artificial Intelligence, ‘AI-driven chatbots’. Furthermore, maladaptive coping strategies were self-criticism, procrastination, absence or withdrawal, and disruptive classroom behavior. This study provides the key components of xenoglossophobia which may benefit EFL community members and educational psychologists. It is also beneficial to the formulation of targeted interventions aimed at advancing therapeutic approaches and counseling programs in clinical psychology.
Understanding the interplay between the social (teacher scaffolding), cognitive (inner speech [IS]), and psychological (behavioral inhibition/activation systems [BIS/BAS]) factors involved in language development, can be crucial in designing effective language instruction. This research investigated the impact of teacher scaffolding on Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ IS, moderated by BIS/BAS sensitivity. A sample of 58 advanced EFL learners was selected through purposive sampling based on Oxford Quick Placement Test results and assigned to two groups. The experimental group (n=28) received instruction through teacher scaffolding, and the control group (n=30) received the conventional teaching methods. To assess learners’ BIS/BAS, the Gary-Wilson Personality Questionnaire was utilized, and Varieties of IS Questionnaire-Revised was applied in pretest and posttest phases to measure learners’ IS. Results of the analysis of covariance revealed that teacher scaffolding could significantly enhance learners’ IS and supported its effectiveness as a pedagogical strategy. Although BAS sensitivity did not have a significant impact on IS development, BIS sensitivity could significantly inhibit IS, suggesting that the anxiety and fear of negative evaluation can adversely affect cognitive processes. The findings have important implications for considering both social and emotional factors when designing EFL pedagogical strategies.
