Inflammation and pain are major contributors to morbidity worldwide, and the long-term use of conventional anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs is often limited due to their associated adverse effects. Siddha medicine employs herbo-mineral formulations such as Vaalai Rasa Mezhugu (VRM), traditionally used for inflammatory and painful conditions, which require scientific validation. The present study evaluated the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of VRM using experimental animal models. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using the carrageenan-induced paw edema model in rats, while analgesic activity was evaluated using Eddy’s hot plate method in mice. VRM produced a dose-dependent inhibition of paw edema, with the high dose showing a maximum inhibition of 64.62% at the 5th hour, comparable to indomethacin (65.33%), with statistical significance from the 1st hour onward (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). In mice, VRM significantly increased pain reaction time, with a maximum analgesic increase of 34.76% at 30 minutes (p < 0.01). These findings demonstrate that VRM possesses significant dose-dependent anti-inflammatory and central analgesic activities, supporting its traditional use and integration into evidence-based medicine.
Hydrogels, or three-dimensional (3D) cross-linked polymer networks having a high-water absorption capacity, have emerged as promising materials with numerous applications. Their distinguishing characteristics, like biocompatibility, biodegradability, and modifiable mechanical properties, make them ideal for both water filtration and food preservation. Hydrogels can be used to remove heavy metals, organic contaminants and other microorganisms from water sources due to their porous structure. The filtered water will then be of better quality because of effective adsorption and filtration. Hydrogels can extend the shelf life of food products by regulating moisture loss, inhibiting microbial development, and releasing beneficial compounds. Hydrogels also act as encapsulating agents that protect sensitive substances while enhancing texture and taste. The review explains about the different types of hydrogels, preparation methods, and their applications, looking at sustainability and future directions for research.
The waste water Recycling is crucial to address the water scarcity created due to the increasing population and industrialization. In the process of sewage treatment and recycling the technology and governing factors are important. Therefore, this study was undertaken to reveal the comparative effects of varying MLSS concentrations on the treated water quality in both Membrane bioreactor (MBR) and Activated Sludge Process (ASP). To check the MLSS, samples of Bio culture were collected from aeration tank of Sewage Treatment Plant from various location. MLSS checked by standard methodology, MLSS indicates Population of Bio-culture present in the process. To check output of treated water samples physicochemical test such as BOD were performed by standardized methods for this comparative study. We have analyzed BOD since it indicates consumption of organic matter by bio-culture. BOD is important parameter which shows the reduction in pollution load or quality of the treated water. In MBR Technology we found MLSS minimum 5600 mg/lit and maximum 7500 mg/lit whereas BOD observed is 9 and 5 mg/lit respectively at same location. In Activated Sludge Process we found MLSS minimum 2800 mg/lit and maximum 4500 mg/ lit at the same location we found BOD 71 and 44 mg/lit respectively. We have analyzed the MLSS and BOD in order to study the concentration of MLSS or Bacterial culture and treated water BOD from the samples collected from outlet of Filtration in ASP and outlet of MBR in industrial as well as residential society STP locations. It was found from MBR technology that less BOD output results were obtained as compared to ASP. The conclusion of this study is higher concentrations of MLSS up to 5600 to 9500 mg/liter results in BOD around 5 to 9 mg/liter. Understanding the relationship between MLSS concentration and treatment performance can aid in the optimization of Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) operations and the development of sustainable wastewater treatment practices. From the study we can recommend to go for MBR Technology where we can maintain higher MLSS and can achieve lesser BOD results as compared to other technology like Activated Sludge Process (ASP).
Metabolomics-guided biomarker discovery has been a new approach for the early detection of metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders by enabling comprehensive profiling of small-molecule metabolites in biofluids. High-throughput mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques, integrated with advanced data analytics, facilitate the identification and profiling of small molecule metabolites in biological fluids. This clinical interpretation helps in bridging the gap between genotype, phenotype and the environment. In the diagnosis of metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases, metabolomics helped in the early diagnosis and profiling of metabolite such as amino acids, lipids and organic acids with precision. By revealing the instabilities in energy metabolism, biological pathways and metabolism of biomolecule, improved therapeutic approaches are used. Despite of these advances’ certain challenges such as lack of standardized protocols and analytical techniques, validation in the integration of metabolomics data with other omics like proteomics and genomics, achieving reliability by performing large scale clinical trials exists. Thus, computational methods for multi omics and metabolomics data can be achieved by incorporating statistical, machine learning and network-based approaches. Computational tools improve metabolomics-based biomarker discovery. Advanced analytical techniques facilitate early diagnosis and enable personalized treatment strategies, thereby transforming predictive medicine and patient care.
Breast cancer treatment remains challenging due to poor tumour targeting, systemic toxicity, and multidrug resistance. Gentamicin, primarily known as an antibiotic, has demonstrated anticancer properties but suffers from poor bioavailability and dose-limiting nephrotoxicity. Incorporating gentamicin into nanocomposite-based transdermal patches offers a promising strategy to overcome these limitations. This review highlights the formulation, characterization, and therapeutic potential of gentamicin-loaded nanocomposites for breast cancer treatment. Advantages include enhanced drug stability, controlled release, improved skin penetration, and reduced systemic exposure. In vitro cytotoxicity studies indicate significant anticancer activity against breast cancer cell lines. While challenges remain, this approach holds considerable potential for localized, sustained, and patient-compliant breast cancer therapy.
Lantana camara L. is a highly adaptable shrub renowned for its ecological resilience and invasive nature, particularly in semi-arid regions. While its crude extracts are known to possess antimicrobial properties, the specific bioactive molecules responsible remain under-characterised. This study aimed to systematically identify the antibacterial compounds from L. camara leaves collected from the environmental stressor conditions of the Todgarh-Aravalli Forest margin in Rajasthan, India. Extraction efficiency was optimised by comparing hot methanolic Soxhlet extraction with cold poly-solvent maceration. The cold extract demonstrated superior bulk yield and broad-spectrum antibacterial efficacy against four multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus), indicating the presence of thermolabile defensive metabolites. Subsequent liquid-liquid partitioning revealed that the antibacterial activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the non-polar n-hexane fraction. Direct TLC-bioautography of this fraction against P. aeruginosa successfully isolated a highly active bio-zone spanning an Rf of 0.63-0.78. Chemical profiling of this bioactive eluate via GC-MS/MS putatively identified ten distinct compounds, predominantly branched-chain alkanes (24.6% peak area), alongside the fatty acid amide oleamide, which has documented membrane-interacting potential and the diterpenoid thunbergol. These findings confirm that the robust antibacterial defense mechanism of L. camara relies primarily on lipophilic secondary metabolites, highlighting its potential as a valuable botanical resource for novel therapeutics against antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
Natural dyes are derived from plant parts such as roots, stems, leaves, bark, flowers, fruits and seeds. Either it can be produced as powder format or extract of the specific parts can be utilized. One of the major causes in the current scenario is synthetic dye effluent production, which can be alternatively changed by using plant extracts as natural dye and fixative agents called natural mordants. Three different plant sources selected for natural colourant extraction such as curcumin pigment from rhizome of Curcuma longa L., anthocyanin pigment from petals of Caesalphinia pulcherrima Sw. and Clitoria ternatea L. were extracted by adding the juice of Citrus limonum L. used as a citric acid natural solvent, citric acid crystals and water were used as solvent to extract dyes and seeds of Terminalia chebula used as natural mordant. The cotton fabric was dipped in fixative plant extracts, dried after some time and it is immersed in plant extracts of natural dye. Then, the fabric was examined under washing fastness and light fastness tests of the different natural dyes with Terminalia chebula seeds powder mordant application, which showed better results in the dye Curcuma longa L. The current study emphasises eco-friendliness and economic usefulness to the textile industries.
The flora and fauna of the soil ecosystem are negatively impacted by the frequent use of chemical pesticides in agricultural fields. Earthworms immensely contribute to increasing the fertility of soil. They may act as a bioindicator for the ecotoxicological analysis of pesticide-induced soil pollution. From this perspective, earthworms, Eudrilus eugeniae were exposed to different concentrations of glyphosate for 96h by soil toxicity method. The LC50 of glyphopsate was determined by probit analysis. E. eugeniae were exposed to three sub-lethal doses,1600,1700 and 1800μl/kg, and their effect on gut enzyme activities were analyzed. Various biochemical estimations such as specific activity of protease, alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, cellulase and amylase, were carried out in the gut of E. eugeniae. The result showed that there was a significant decrease in the activities of amylase and protease, while there was a substantial increase in the activities of cellulase, acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase. Such changes indicate potential health risks to E. eugeniae if exposed to the high concentrations of glyphosate accumulated in soil.
Fish are a vital source of protein and nutrients, but their health is threatened by oxidative stress. This study evaluated the antioxidant effect of different extracts of Jackfruit seed parts viz. Jackfruit seed slimy sheath powder (JSS), Jackfruit seed slimy sheath- pectin (SSP), Jackfruit seed brown tegmen powder (JST), and the fleshy white jackfruit seed extract (jackfruit seed without any protective coat) (JSE) on ferrous sulphate-induced lipid peroxidation in Anabas testudineus hepatocytes. Using an in vitro model, fish hepatocytes were treated with varying concentrations of extracts and incubated for 30 and 60 minutes. The results showed that these extracts exhibited protective effect against oxidative stress by reducing lipid peroxidation products (MDA and CD) and modulating antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD and CAT). The order of protective activity was JSE > SSP > JSS > JST, with effects being temporal and concentration-dependent response. SSP and JSE exhibit maximum hepatoprotective activity against FeSO4-induced toxicity compared to the other extracts used in the study.
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms has become a serious global health concern, prompting the search for effective and natural therapeutic alternatives. Carissa carandas, a plant widely used in traditional medicine, is known for its bioactive phytochemicals with potential antibacterial properties. This study aimed to investigate the phytochemical composition and evaluate the comparative antibacterial activity of ripe and unripe C. carandas fruit extracts prepared using five solvents: aqueous, methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, and n-hexane. Phytochemical screening was performed using standard qualitative methods, and antibacterial activity was evaluated against three Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Lactobacillus sporogenes) and two Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) using the disk diffusion method. Disks were impregnated with 5, 10, 15, and 20 μL of extract solution at a concentration of 10 mg/mL. The ethyl acetate extract of unripe fruit exhibited the highest antibacterial efficacy, with maximum zones of inhibition ranging from 10 mm to 11 mm against Lactobacillus sporogenes, surpassing all other extracts. Ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of unripe fruit showed a higher diversity of secondary metabolites compared to other solvents. In contrast, aqueous extract of unripe fruit and ethanol extract of ripe fruit displayed the lowest antibacterial activity. Overall, unripe fruit extracts were more effective than ripe fruit extracts. Streptomycin was used as a reference standard. These findings validate the traditional use of C. carandas and highlight its potential as a natural source of antibacterial agents, especially the ethyl acetate extract of unripe fruit, for combating resistant bacterial strains.
The ultimate goal of numerous agricultural researchers is to develop more sustainable and less dangerous commodities for farming applications. Due to the increasing population, persistent monoculture practices, and the indiscriminate application of chemical fertilizers, the long-term management and quality of resources require heightened attention. Vermicomposting is more efficient and feasible than other bio-waste composting processes, and it can facilitate the transition from degraded land to highly rich soil. It is a bio-oxidative composting technique that employs earthworms to degrade organic materials into compost under regulated circumstances. The application of vermicompost has demonstrated remarkable results in horticultural crops, supported by numerous reports and guidelines. In this communication we have enlightened the opportunity and scope of application of vermicomposting for the betterment of soil as well as for the improvement of sustainable agriculture.
Inherent heavy metal presence in soil is exacerbated by geological and anthropogenic activities, posing threats to both plant and animal life. This study isolates 11 bacteria from Naregaon garbage and Yash Raj Engineering soil samples, with 6 strains demonstrating adept hydrolysis of various metal ions (Cu, Co, Mn & Cr) for growth. The most efficient bacterial isolate in degrading heavy metals was identified as Achromobacter sp. HM6 through 16S rRNA sequencing and remaining isolates were identified as Kocuria pelophila, Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolius, Liquorilactobacillus mali, Burkholderia cepacia, Bacillus megaterium as per Bergey's Manual and ABIS software. In laboratory-scale experiments, these isolates demonstrated substantial remediation of heavy metal-polluted water (78% Lead, 82% Cobalt, 90% Chromium, and 92% Copper) within 15-20 days. Optimal conditions determined through Plackett-Burman design (pH 6.9, Temp 40.5℃, and sub 0.06%) yielded a 96% bioremediation efficiency within 4.5 days. Furthermore, landfilling bioremediation reduced the toxicity of heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Mn & Cu) in polluted soil by 80-90%, and land farming bioremediation significantly enhanced overall plant growth compared to control conditions. These findings highlight the capability of the isolated bacteria to eco-friendly and cost-effectively mitigate the toxicity of heavy metals in polluted soils and water, offering a sustainable solution for environmental remediation.
Nanotechnology and the application of nanoparticles in biological systems are rapidly advancing areas of research. Selenium, an essential micronutrient for humans, animals, and microbes, has recently drawn significant scientific interest in its nanoparticle form due to its enhanced bioavailability and compatibility with biological systems. This study focuses on the synthesis of selenium nanoparticles using a short synthetic hepta peptide with the amino acid sequence FRLKFHF. The peptide-functionalized selenium nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Visible Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy-Enenrgy Dispersive spectrum and Transmission Electron Microscopy analyses. Their biological efficacy as biocatalysts was evaluated. The synthesized nanoparticles demonstrated nanozyme-like properties, as they mimicked antioxidant enzymes, effectively scavenging free radicals. They exhibited antioxidant enzyme-mimicking activities similar to superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. In addition, they showed catalytic efficiency in degrading methylene blue dye. These findings highlight the potential of heptapeptide–selenium nanoparticles as biocatalytic agents, with their antioxidant enzyme-like functions. Further more, dye degradation ability of these nanoparticles suggests possible applications in wastewater treatment within the textile industry.
This review critically examines studies published between 2000 and 2025 that investigate the differential effects of consuming organic versus conventionally grown fruits and vegetables on the human gut microbiome, with a particular focus on how farming practices influence microbial diversity and associated health outcomes. It explores the extent to which pesticide residues in conventional produce may disrupt gut microbial balance, potentially contributing to inflammation, immune dysfunction, and cognitive impairment. Conversely, organically produced foods, typically characterized by lower pesticide levels and higher concentrations of beneficial phytochemicals, are associated with a more balanced and diverse gut microbiota, which supports improved metabolic and cognitive health. The review also highlights the broader implications of microbiome changes on physical and mental well-being, particularly through the gut-brain axis. Despite promising findings, significant methodological variability across studies poses challenges in establishing definitive conclusions. This review synthesizes current knowledge, identifies critical research gaps, and proposes directions for future investigation. In doing so, it underscores the importance of informed dietary choices in promoting long-term human health through microbiome modulation.
According to Siddha pathology fever is classified as 64 types based on origin. Astabhairava Mathirai (ABM) is a Siddha metallo-mineral formulation traditionally used to treat 64 types of fever. Despite its historical significance, scientific validation of its safety is crucial for its acceptance in modern medicine. This study aims to assess the quality parameters of Asta bhairava mathirai based on PLIM Guidelines. The Astabhairava Mathirai was subjected to physiochemical analysis, Biochemical analysis, HPTLC and safety analysis like aflatoxin, pesticide residue, Microbial contamination, and heavy metals. The physicochemical analysis showed total ash (6.76%), acid-insoluble ash (1.14 %), pH (3.23), friability (0.020%), Water Extractive (26.95%), Alcohol Extractive (32.84%), hardness (1.0 kg/cm2), disintegration time (45 minutes). The biochemical analysis showed the presence of sulphide, sodium, iron, calcium, reducing sugar, and alkaloid. The safety studies viz., aflatoxin, pesticide residue, microbial contamination and heavy metals analysis revealed that the test drug ABM is within the AYUSH permissible limits. The HPTLC analysis showed the presence of 10 versatile phytochemical. Thus, the study reveals that the Astabhairava Mathirai has significant quality and safety. Consequently, these parameters can serve in the study of Astabhairava Mathirai as an important Siddha medicinal preparation among the scientific forum.
Senna alata (L.) Roxb., of the family Fabaceae, is a stress resilient shrubby plant of leguminous group with diazotrophic bacterial association that grows naturally in wastelands and has significant phytoremediation potential against toxic heavy metals. It plays important ecological service by attracting the honey bees and other wild bees with its bright yellow flowers to provide forages. Moreover, capacity of S. alata to produce considerable biomass with profuse branching systems in adverse soil condition and seeds that remain viable for several years make it distinctively potential candidate for modifying the unfavourable soil condition of wastelands. However, plants that have great ethnomedicinal and economic importance as per available literature are considered as more promising for the optimum use of degraded sites for the economic development of the local people by implementing favourable agronomic practices. S. alata fulfils these criteria too as it is traditionally known for its antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial and antidiabetic properties. Again, recently this plant has been reported as potential alternative source for producing commercially important cellulose. However, there is lack of information in available literature describing the potential of S. alata as a stress resilient candidate worth to be used for creation of vegetation cover over degraded wastelands. Therefore, here, we review the prospectives of S. alata to explore its feasibility for creating vegetation cover to improve soil quality in wastelands, which will be helpful to plant scientists, environmentalists, and pharmacologists.
Senecio dalzelii, a member of this genus, holds significant value in traditional medicine and ethnobotanical practices. However, the phytochemical composition and bioactivities of its essential oil (EO) remain underexplored. The EO was extracted from fresh aerial parts of S. dalzelii using hydro-distillation in a Clevenger-type apparatus. Subsequent GC-MS profiling and phytochemical screening were performed to identify bioactive compounds. A total of 35 chemical compounds were identified, accounting for 91.68% of the total EO yield. The major constituents were Thymyl Methyl Ether (18.78%), 4-(2', 4', 4'-trimethyl-yciclo 4.1.0], hept-2'-en-3'-yl)-3-buten-2-one (9.9%), Estragole (7.64%), α-Curcumene (6.2%), (-)-δ-Cadinol (4.64%), Caryophyllene (4.24%). TLC profiles showed 8 bands with iodine vapor and 9 bands at 254 and 366 nm, respectively, indicating the diverse bioactive components. EOs found to be rich in phytochemicals with potential attributed to the inclusion of flavonoids (9.16 μg quercetin equivalents mg⁻¹ EO), and total phenols (3.41 μg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) mg⁻¹ EO). EO exhibited significant antioxidant activity, as measured by DPPH, showing an IC50 value of 1.06 mg/mL, and the Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) showed 59.41±2.38 μg ascorbic acid equivalent at 2 mg¹ EO, respectively. The EO also exhibited significant adulticidal efficacy against Callosobrochus maculatus; the LC50 and LC95 values of the EO were 8.89 and 17.58 μL/mL, respectively. This Study shows that S. dalzelii EO contains various phytochemicals, particularly thymyl methyl ether and phenolics, which contribute to its significant antioxidant and insecticidal properties. Therefore, these findings suggest potential use of S. dalzellii EO as a natural antioxidant and biopesticide for agro-pharmaceutical or biocontrol applications.
Polystyrene is non-biodegradable that causes landfill waste and microplastic pollution. Its manufacturing and disposal release toxic substances, harming the air, water and wildlife. Photocatalytic degradation of Polystyrene (Paper Cup) using Green synthesized platinum nanoparticle synthesized from lemon peel extract for the duration of 100 hours under sunlight is an efficient way to degrade plastics. Hence, this research was designed to be environmentally friendly, pollution free, cost effective and has no side effects to the environment. Platinum nanoparticles exhibit superior photocatalytic performance due to their exceptional ability to enhance electron–hole pair separation, strong visible-light absorption, and high redox catalytic activity. These properties enable more efficient and complete degradation of polystyrene compared to conventional oxide-based catalysts such as TiO₂ and ZnO. The degradation of Polystyrene is determined with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Weight loss showed a substantial mass reduction of 42.86% following sunlight-assisted photocatalytic degradation. SEM images revealed a shift from the smooth, intact surface of PS to a severely deteriorated morphology characterized by cracks, pits, and grooves, indicative of surface erosion and chalking. EDAX detected 11.69 wt% Pt on the degraded surface along with elevated oxygen levels, demonstrating catalyst adherence and progressive oxidation of the polymer matrix. FTIR analysis exhibited the appearance and broadening of carbonyl and other oxygen-containing functional bands within the 1400–1650 cm⁻¹ regions, confirming oxidative chemical transformation. AFM confirmed these findings, with surface roughness increasing from Ra = 25.00 to 31.25 nm and Rq = 31.25 to 39.40 nm, reflecting enhanced topographical irregularity attributable to polymer chain scission. The novelty of the research is that green synthesized platinum nanoparticle offers higher stability, lower toxicity and efficient degradation under mild conditions compared to other catalysts. Therefore, these results highlight the promising potential of green synthesized Pt nanoparticles for large-scale plastic waste remediation and their broader applicability in sustainable environmental nanotechnology.
The marine ecosystem has become a treasure trove for the discovery of new pharmacological leads, with oysters being a prime example. Abundant in protein and widely available, oysters have drawn significant attention. Interestingly, their shells, which account for approximately 60% of their total weight, are mainly composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), making up a remarkable 95% of the shell's makeup. Muthuchippi parpam is a traditionally used Siddha formulation effective in the treatment of various diseases. The aim of the study is to evaluate the significant changes during processing of Muthuchippi parpam (at various stages of processing) as per PLIM guidelines by assessing the organoleptic, physico-chemical, biochemical properties of Muthuchippi across different stages: unpurified, purified, intermediate, and Parpam and phytochemical analysis of Muthuchippi parpam. Significant changes were observed in color, moisture content, ash values, extractive values, and pH, indicating the impact of purification and processing. The loss on drying remained below 1%, ensuring low moisture content and extended shelf life. Total ash content increased, reflecting higher mineral concentration in the purified and Parpam samples. Water-soluble and acid-insoluble ash values confirmed the purity of the final product. The pH increased from 7.56 to 9.80, highlighting its alkaline nature, beneficial in neutralizing stomach acid. Extractive values showed variations, suggesting changes in bioactive compounds during processing. The study demonstrates the changes taking place during various stages of processing thus it help in improving the stability, purity, and therapeutic promise of Muthuchippi Parpam, aligning with its established role in Siddha medicine.
Cells that appear phenotypically identical can exhibit significant differences in behavior throughout their lifespan. The advent of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology represents a significant advancement in the exploration of RNA transcript heterogeneity and complexity at the individual cell level. High-throughput transcriptomics techniques, particularly single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), have revolutionized the examination of transcriptional activity in response to developmental and environmental stimuli. Currently, the application of single-cell gene expression analyses in plants remains limited. This limitation is largely attributed to the presence of the plant cell wall, which poses challenges for the separation and acquisition of individual cells. The current body of research on single-cell gene expression in plants has predominantly focused on a relatively small sample size. However, there is a growing acknowledgment of the significant advantages that large-scale single-cell transcriptome analyses could offer in the field of plant biology. Future directions include the integration of scRNA-seq with large-scale genetic screening to deepen insights into stress-response gene expression and the underlying molecular mechanisms in plants. For the present study genuine search engines including Google Scholar, PubMed, ResearchGate and other credible online resources were considered. The primary aim of this review is to inform future researchers about the potential of scRNA seq and the limitations of this technique in the field of plant research. Additionally, it encompasses recent studies on specific crop plants and their findings, which will be beneficial for future researchers to understand the prevailing trends in the field of plant biology.
